31    bSD 


ON  ANGLO-SAXON  VERSIFICATION 


FROM   THE   STANDPOINT    OF 


MODERN-ENGLISH  VERSIFICATION. 


BY 


EDWIN  B.  SETZLER,  M.  A.,  PH.  D., 

Professor  of  Teutonic   Languages  in   Newberry  College, 
Newberry,  S.  C. 


CD 


BALTIMORE: 
FURST      COMPANY, 
19O4. 


LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Clots 


ON  ANGLO-SAXON  VERSIFICATION 


FROM   THE   STANDPOINT   OF 


MODERN-ENGLISH  VERSIFICATION 


BY 


EDWIN  B.  SETZLER,  M.  A.,  PH.  D., 

Professor  of  Teutonic  Languages  in  Newberry  College, 
Newberry,  S.  C. 


BALTI  MORE  : 
FURST      COMPANY. 
1  9O4. 


COPYRIGHT,  1904,  BY  E.  B.  SETZLER. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


BOOK  II.— PAKT  I. 
ON  ANGLO-SAXON  VERSIFICATION,  ETC. 

PAGE. 

INTRODUCTION 1 

CHAPTER  I.— IN  GENERAL 4 

1.  The  poems.  2.  The  dialect.  3.  The  accents.  4.  The  orders  of 
rhythm.  5.  Arsis  and  thesis. 

CHAPTER  II.— THE  TYPES 10 

1.  The  number  of  types.  2.  Type  A.  3.  Type  B.  4.  Type  C.  5. 
Type  D.  6.  Type  E.  7.  Other  possible  types.  8.  Kelative 
frequency  of  each  type.  9.  Union  of  types  in  the  line.  Kepe- 
tition  of  the  same  type.  10.  The  anacrusis  ( or  prelude) . 

CHAPTER  III. — ALLITERATION 24 

1.  In  general.  2.  Functions  of  alliteration.  3.  Rules  of  alliteration. 
4.  Place  of  alliteration.  5.  Transverse  alliteration. 

CHAPTER  IV. —  METRICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NORMAL  LINE 35 

1.  Sievers'  fundamental  rules.     2.  Structure  of  the  normal  line. 
3.    Suggestions  to  the  student  in  analysing  the  normal  line. 

CHAPTER  V. — THE  ANGLO-SAXON  LONG  LINE  OR  HEXAMETER 42 

1.  Occurrence.  2.  Difference  between  the  long  line  and  the  normal 
line.  3.  Structure  of  the  long  line.  4.  Alliteration  in  the  long 
line.  5.  The  types.  6.  Lines  longer  than  six  feet. 

BOOK   II.— PAKT  II. 

METRICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  WANDERER,  SEAFARER,  ETC. 
PREFACE 49 

CHAPTER  I. — ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NORMAL  LINES 51 

1.  Type  A.     2.  Type  B.     3.  Type  C.     4.  Type  D.     5.  Type  E. 
6.    Suggested  textual  emendations. 

CHAPTER  II. — ALLITERATION  IN  THE  WANDERER,  SEAFARER,  ETC 84 

CHAPTER  III. — ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LONG  LINES  IN  THE  WANDERER,  SEA- 
FARER, ETC..." 85 

1.  Number  of  long  lines.    2.  Type  A- A.    3.  Type  B-A.    4.  Type  A-B. 


BOOK   II.— PART   I. 

ON   ANGLO-SAXON   VERSIFICATION 

FROM  THE  STANDPOINT  OF  MODERN  ENGLISH  VERSIFICATION. 


INTRODUCTION. 

English  prosodists,  with  some  few  honorable  exceptions,  have  in 
their  treatises  uniformly  neglected  the  versification  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  period.  This  neglect  is  surprising  when  we  remember  that, 
in  the  main,  the  fundamental  principles  of  English  versification 
are  the  same  throughout  all  of,  at  least  the  historic  period  of  the 
language — that  in  Modern  English  poetry  we  have  no  new  basic 
principle  introduced,  but  merely  the  development  and  perfection  of 
germs  that  existed  in  the  earliest  Anglo-Saxon  poetry.  We  surely 
can  study  profitably  Anglo-Saxon  versification  for  the  light  it 
throws  upon  Modern  English  (to  say  nothing  of  Middle  English) 
prosody ;  and  we  can  most  profitably  and  efficiently  study  it  in  the 
light  which  is  in  turn  thrown  upon  it  by  Modern  English  versifica- 
tion. 

Since  so  great  a  diversity  of  opinion  exists  among  scholars  with 
regard  to  the  fundamental  principles  of  Modern  English  prosody, 
although  Modern  English  poetry  is  a  subject  with  which  every 
school-boy  is  familiar,  we  need  not  be  surprised  to  find  similar 
conflicting  opinions  and  contradictory  theories  among  Anglo-Saxon 
nietrists,  inasmuch  as  the  study  of  the  earliest  historic  period  of 
our  language  has  been,  and  is  still  in  many  places,  so  deplorably 
neglected  in  even  our  high-schools  and  colleges.  It  would  be 
interesting,  did  the  scope  of  this  discussion  permit,  to  notice  the 
various  theories  that  have  been  advanced  by  different  scholars. 
Some,  like  Tyrwhitt,1  have  been  unable  to  perceive  even  any 

1Conybeare  (in  his  "On  Anglo-Saxon  Poetry" — 1828)  quotes  Tyrwhitt  as 
saying  in  the  preface  to  his  "  Chaucer"  that  he  "  can  discover  in  the  production 
of  our  Anglo-Saxon  bards  no  traces  whatever  of  a  regular  metrical  system,  or  even 
of  alliteration." 

1 


2  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

rhythm  at  all  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry.  Dr.  Guest,  in  his  great 
work  on  "  English  Rhythms/7  takes  the  position  that  there  is  not 
to  be  found  "  the  slightest  trace  of  temporal  rhythm  "  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  poems.  Prof.  Hickes  believed  that  Anglo-Saxon 
verse  was  governed  entirely  by  the  classic  laws  of  quantity.  Prof. 
Sweet  (following  Sievers)  expresses  the  opinion  in  his  "Anglo- 
Saxon  Reader"  that  "the  number  of  syllables  is  indifferent  as 
long  as  the  verse  is  not  made  too  light  on  the  one  hand,  or  over- 
loaded on  the  other  hand."  This  theory,  however,  is  opposed  by 
Lawrence  in  his  "  Chapters  on  Alliterative  Verse,"  and  by  Heath 
in  his  "  The  Old  English  Alliterative  line."  Lanier,  in  his  brilliant 
and  scholarly  work,  "  The  Science  of  English  Verse,"  makes  the 
same  laws  govern  in  Anglo-Saxon  versification  that  operate  in 
Modern  English  prosody,  and  declares  emphatically  that  Anglo- 
Saxon  rhythm,  as  well  as  all  rhythm,  is  based  upon  musical 
principles.  Among  the  Germans  (and  they  of  all  scholars  have 
most  thoroughly  investigated  this  subject  in  English  prosody)  we 
have  "  confusion  worse  confounded."  What  with  the  "  four-arsis" 
theory  of  Lachmann,  Miillenhoff,  and  others ;  with  the  "  two- 
arsis  "  theory  of  Moller,  Franck,  and  their  followers  ;  and  with  the 
multiplied  variations  and  modifications  of  each  of  these  theories  by 
their  numerous  disciples  of  varying  reputation  and  scholarship,  it 
would  be  indeed  an  almost  impossible  task  to  unravel  the  thread 
of  truth  from  such  a  tangled  skein  of  conflicting  theories. 

Happily  we  are  not  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the  theorist  in 
determining  the  principles  of  Anglo-Saxon  versification.  Extensive 
remains  of  the  Early  English  poetry  have  been  preserved  to  us, 
and  we  have  the  impartial  test  of  the  actual  facts  of  the  prosody  to 
which  we  can  subject  all  the  various  conjectures  and  theories. 
And  that  theory  which,  of  all  those  advanced  up  to  the  present 
time,  most  nearly  meets  this  test  when  viewed  from  the  standpoint 
of  Modern  English  versification — the  theory  which  best  accords 
with  the  facts  and  most  nearly  explains  all  the  phenomena — is 
that  promulgated  by  Prof.  Eduard  Sievers  in  an  article  entitled 
"  Zur  Rhythmik  des  Germanischen  Alliterationsverses,"  which  ap- 
peared in  volume  x.  (1885)  and  xu.  (1887)  of  Paul  and  Braune's 
"  Beitrage  der  Deutschen  Sprache  und  Literatur ; "  and  also  a  few 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  3 

years  later  in  his  "  Altgermanische  Metrik  "  (1893).  This  theory, 
with  modifications  in  some  particulars,  is  that  which  has  been 
adopted  in  this  discussion. 

The  few  deviations  from  Sievers'  theory  which  have  been  per- 
mitted here  are  such,  in  the  main,  as  were  suggested  by  a  study  of 
the  subject  from  the  Modern  English  view-point — by  studying  it 
in  its  historical  connection.  It  is  extremely  important,  we  believe, 
that  this  connection  between  the  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  and  the  later 
English  poetry  be  kept  in  mind  in  this  study,  for  the  connection  is 
vital  and  direct.  We  have  to  deal  here,  not  with  two  different 
languages,  but  with  different  periods  of  the  same  language.  In 
the  Anglo-Saxon  period  we  merely  have  the  English  in  its  infancy ; 
there  may  be  much  in  its  poetry  that  is  crude  and  imperfect 
when  measured  by  the  standards  of  the  Modern  period,  and  yet 
the  fundamental  principles  of  its  versification  are  largely  the  same. 
In  both  we  have  the  rhythmic  units  marked-off  by  accent,  and  in 
both  we  have  the  requirement  that  the  logical-accent  and  the  pro- 
nunciation-accent shall  coincide  with  the  rhythmical  accent.  That 
minor  differences  exist,  does  not  affect  the  truth  of  the  statement. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  indeed,  emphasizes  the  rhythm — even  at 
the  expense  of  the  meaning — more  than  does  the  Modern  English 
— -just  as  our  nursery  songs  do  to-day — -just  as,  in  fact,  all  poetry 
has  done  in  the  childhood  of  its  development.  Its  recitation  was 
probably  more  musical  than  ours ;  indeed,  the  reciter  frequently 
accompanied  his  poem  with  some  musical  instrument.  And  yet 
we  are  not  to  conclude  from  this  that  the  poetry  was  sung ;  it  was 
probably  only  a  musical  recitation.  As  Prof.  Sweet  says,  the  fact 
that  the  word-stress  as  well  as  the  sentence-stress  is  rigorously 
observed  "  proves  that  Old  English  poetry  must  have  been  recited, 
not  sung."  In  essential  principles,  the  difference  between  Anglo- 
Saxon  versification  and  Modern  English  versification  is  not  so 
much  in  kind  as  in  degree — and  Lanier  was  not  far  wrong  in  his 
theory,  however  he  may  have  erred  in  its  application.  It  will  be 
profitable  to  keep  this  fact  in  mind  in  the  study  of  the  subject. 


4  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

CHAPTER   I. 
IN  GENERAL. 

§  1.  THE  POEMS.  Of  the  entire  body  of  Anglo-Saxon  Poetry, 
only  about  thirty  thousand  lines,  in  round  numbers,  have  been 
preserved  to  us.1  What  proportion  of  the  original  amount  was 
entirely  lost  is  a  matter  of  conjecture.  While  it  must  have  been 
considerable,  yet  very  probably  the  remains  we  have  are  fairly 
representative  of  the  whole. 

The  most  important  and  the  longest  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  poems 
is  the  Beowulf.  It  contains  3183  lines.  The  other  poems  most 
considerable  in  length  are:  Genesis  2935  lines;  Andreas  1720; 
Crist  1694;  GuSlac  1353;  Elene  1320;  Daniel  765;  Juliana 
731 ;  Phoenix  677  ;  Exodus  589  ;  and  Solomon  and  Saturn  504. 
In  addition  to  these,  there  are  a  number  of  shorter  poems,  varying 
in  length  from  a  few  lines  to  three  or  four  hundred  ;  some  of  these 
shorter  poems,  however,  have  more  poetic  excellence  than  the 
longer  ones.  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  covers  a  period  of  some  three 
or  four  centuries — perhaps  from  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  to 
the  middle  of  the  llth.  However,  the  dates  of  many  of  the  earlier 
poems  are  conjectural,  and  can  not  be  fixed  with  certainty.  It  is 
probable,  indeed — inasmuch  as  the  poems  were  handed  down  for  a 
long  time  in  the  memory  of  men — that  some  of  them,  such  as 
WidsrS,  the  Charms,  the  lays  in  Beowulf,  etc.,  were  composed  at 
a  much  earlier  date  than  the  7th  century ;  perhaps  before  the 
Teutons  came  over  from  the  continent. 

§  2.  THE  DIALECT.  Although  composed  at  widely  different 
periods,  nearly  all  the  poems  have  been  transmitted  in  manuscripts 
of  the  10th  and  llth  centuries;  and  that  too  by  West-Saxon 
scribes,  and  to  a  great  extent  in  the  West-Saxon  dialect,  although 
all  except  the  latest  and  a  few  earlier  minor  poems  were  composed, 
in  all  probability,  in  the  Anglian  dialect.  The  most  important  of 

1  At  the  present  the  best  edition — a  complete  one — of  the  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  is 
Grein-Wiilker's  "Bibliothek  der  Angelsachsischen  Poesie,"  Kassell,  1888. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  5 

those  transmitted  in  other  than  the  West-Saxon  dialect  are :  in  the 
Northumbrian  dialect,  Caedmon's  Hymn,  the  Ruthwell  Cross, 
Bede's  Death  Speech,  and  the  Ley  den  Riddle;  in  the  Kentish, 
Psalm  50,  and  Hymn  II. 

Metrically  considered,  however,  this  transmission  of  the  poems 
in  a  dialect  different  from  that  in  which  they  were  composed,  and 
at  a  later  date,  is  of  no  very  great  importance.  The  main 
rhythmical  types  are  the  same  in  all  three  dialects,  as  they  are, 
indeed,  in  all  the  Teutonic  languages  of  that  period.  The  chief 
difference  is,  that  the  West-Saxon  dialect  frequently  shows  shortened 
and  contracted  inflection  endings,  where  the  Anglian,  in  all  prob- 
ability, had  only  the  longer,  uncontracted  forms.  Inasmuch  as 
these  inflection  endings  are  always  short  and  unaccented,  they  have 
little  effect  on  the  rhythm,  and  it  is  perhaps  better  to  disregard 
them  altogether,  except  in  those  cases  where  a  substitution  of  the 
Anglian  form  (if  that  can  be  determined  with  certainty)  will  give 
a  more  common  verse-type.  For  metrical  purposes,  the  West- 
Saxon  dialect  is  as  complete  as  any  other,  and  it  presents  equally 
clearly  the  fundamental  principles  of  Anglo-Saxon  versification. 
Besides,  it  gives  us  the  poems  at  a  time  when  both  the  language 
and  the  metre  had  attained  a  more  advanced  stage  of  culture  and 
a  higher  degree  of  polish ;  and  it  seems  that  there  is  little  to  be 
gained,  from  the  metrical  standpoint  at  least,  in  attempting  to 
reduce  the  poems  to  their  original  Anglian  form. 

§  3.  THE  ACCENTS.  Anglo-Saxon,  just  as  Modern  English 
versification,  is  based  on  accent  and  not  on  "  quantity  " — that  is, 
accent  is  the  means  used  to  mark-off  the  units  of  primary  rhythm. 
Of  course,  it  is  true  here,  as  also  in  Modern  English,  that  all  the 
sounds  necessarily  have  some  "  quantity,"  but  this  quantity  is  not 
fixed  for  each  sound,  as  it  is  in  Latin  and  Greek,  but  it  is  variable, 
even  in  the  same  line,  and  depends  on  the  ease  with  which  the 
syllable  can  be  uttered  and  the  number  of  syllables  by  which  it  is 
accompanied  in  the  same  measure,  rather  than  on  the  nature  of 
the  vowel  as  "  long  "  or  "  short,"  or  on  the  number  of  consonants 
by  which  it  is  followed. 

Anglo-Saxon  differs  from  the  Latin  and  the  Greek  again  in  the 
character  of  its  accents.  There  are  here,  as  in  Modern  English, 


6  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

three  kinds  of  accents :  the  word-accent,  the  sentence-accent,  and 
the  rhythmical-accent,  and  the  function  of  each  is  the  same  as 
in  Modern  English.  The  word-accent  is  the  stress  of  voice  laid 
on  some  syllable  of  a  word  of  more  than  one  syllable  to  indicate 
its  pre-eminence  compared  with  the  other  syllables  of  the  word. 
For  metrical  purposes,  monosyllables  may  be  regarded  either  as 
accented  or  unaccented,  as  the  rhythm  in  any  special  case  may 
require.  Compound  words  which  have  regularly  a  secondary 
accent  in  prose,  may  retain  that  accent  in  poetry,  where  it  does  not 
interfere  with  the  rhythm.  In  case  rhythmical  accents  fall  on 
both  primary  and  secondary  word-accents — which  sometimes 
occurs — the  syllable  of  the  secondary  accent  also  receives  the  full 
stress  of  the  rhythmical  accent,  and  in  this  respect  is  not  distin- 
guished from  the  primary-accent  syllable. 

The  secondary  accent  of  compounds  varies  in  intensity  with  the 
relative  importance  of  each  component  part,  and  on  the  nature  of 
the  relation  of  the  parts  to  each  other.  As  to  whether  or  not  a 
secondary  accent  is  to  be  recognized  in  the  versification,  will  depend 
upon  the  requirement  of  the  rhythm  in  each  particular  case.  This 
view  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  even  in  prose  it  is  undecided  in 
many  cases  whether  or  not  the  compound  should  be  pronounced 
with  a  secondary  accent.  Again,  there  are  some  compound  words 
— such  as  brimlffi&ndra,  deftercweftdndra,  etc. — which  some  would 
consider  as  having  three  word-accents,  on  the  first,  second  and 
third  syllables  respectively.  In  this  case,  the  first  and  second 
accents  would  coincide  with  the  rhythmical  accents,  and  be  primary 
accents  in  effect ;  while  the  third  would  have  only  the  force  of  a 
secondary  accent,  and  perform  the  function  explained  under  "  type 
D,"  page  14.  For  metrical  purposes,  the  word-accent  even  of 
words  of  more  than  one  syllable  is  obscured,  unless  it  coincides 
with  a  metrical  accent. 

The  sentence-accent  is  the  stress  (greater  than  that  of  the  word- 
accent)  given  to  a  word  in  a  clause,  or  "  thought  unit,"  to  indicate 
its  pre-eminence  among  the  words  of  the  clause.  Accompanying 
this  increased  stress,  there  is  usually  a  change  of  pitch  as  well. 
The  stress  is  not  always  the  same,  but  it  varies  in  degree  according 
to  the  logical  and  relative  importance  of  the  word  on  which  it 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  7 

falls.  The  sentence-accent  regularly  coincides  with  the  word- 
accent,  except  in  such  cases  as  where,  for  the  purpose  of  contrast, 
it  falls  on  the  usually  unaccented  prefix  of  two  antithetical  words. 
Likewise,  as  has  been  said,  the  sentence  accent  regularly  falls  on 
the  most  important  words  of  the  sentence ;  that  is,  upon  any  word 
that  is  logically  the  subject.  Usually  this  is  a  substantive,  although 
it  may  be  an  adverb,  a  preposition,  or  some  similar  part  of  speech. 

The  rhythmical-accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  given  to  syllables  (or 
sounds)  which  are  to  be  separated  from  each  other  in  utterance  by 
at  least  approximately  equal  intervals  of  time.  The  rhythmical- 
accent  divides  the  line  into  rhythmical  units,  or  measures,  or  feet. 
Here,  just  as  in  Modern  English,  a  foot  may  be  defined  as  the 
number  of  syllables  marked-off  by  a  rhythmical-accent ;  and  each 
line  contains  as  many  feet  as  it  has  primary  rhythmical-accents. 
The  rhythmical-accent  is  one  of  stress  entirely,  and  is  not  accom- 
panied by  any  variation  in  pitch.  It  must  coincide  with  the  word- 
accent  and  the  sentence-accent.  In  Modern  English,  with  its 
greater  number  of  feet  to  the  line,  the  rhythmical  accent  sometimes 
falls  on  a  word  that  has  very  little  or  no  sentence-accent  or  word- 
accent,  but  this  is  not  the  case  in  Anglo-Saxon. 

§  4.  THE  ORDERS  OF  EHYTHM.  (1)  Primary  Rhythm. 
Anglo-Saxon  rhythm  differs  very  little  from  Modern  English 
rhythm.  Poetic  rhythm  (as  has  been  shown  in  Book  I)  depends  upon 
the  occurrence  of  sounds  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  co-ordinated 
into  equal  time-groups,  or  units.  In  Modern  English,  the  units 
of  primary  rhythm  are  usually  occupied  by  the  same  number  of 
sounds  or  syllables — "  substituted  feet "  of  a  different  number  of 
syllables  being  frequently  permitted.  In  Anglo-Saxon,  however, 
the  number  of  syllables  in  each  time-unit  constantly  varies ;  and 
even  the  order  of  the  accent  frequently  changes — but  always  within 
certain  definite  limits.  Where  there  is  a  greater  number  of 
syllables  in  the  foot  or  time-unit  than  the  normal,  the  enunciation 
is  accelerated;  where  there  are  fewer,  it  is  retarded.  The  very 
nature  of  rhythm  requires,  as  we  have  seen,  that  the  ear  be  able  to 
perceive  a  regular  succession  of  sounds,  and  to  co-ordinate  them  into 
groups  covering  at  least  approximately  equal  intervals  of  time. 

The  co-ordination  of  the  sounds  into  equal  time-groups  is 
effected  by  the  regular  recurrence  of  the  rhythmical-accent;  and 


8  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

the  unit  of  primary  rhythm  is  the  interval  between  any  two  suc- 
cessive rhythmical  accents.  If  the  measure  contains  only  a  single 
sound,  either  this  sound  is  prolonged,  or  the  measure  is  filled  out 
with  a  pause ;  and  the  same  is  true  in  those  types  of  rhythm 
where  the  two  successive  rhythmical  accents  come  upon  adjoining 
syllables. 

(2)  Secondary  Rhythm.  The  Caesura.  In  Modern  English 
the  unit  of  the  secondary  rhythm  is  the  line ;  in  Anglo-Saxon  it  is 
the  "  type,"  or  half-line :  every  normal  half-line  constitutes  a  unit 
of  secondary  rhythm.  The  half-line  consists  of  two  feet,  or  units 
of  primary  rhythm,  which  are  more  closely  connected  with  each 
other  than  with  the  remaining  feet  in  the  line. 

The  secondary  rhythmic  units  are  marked-off  to  the  ear  by  a 
pause  between  two  successive  half-lines.  This  pause  is  called  the 
caesura.  The  caesura  performs  a  somewhat  different  function  in 
Anglo-Saxon  from  what  it  does  in  Modern  English.  In  the  latter 
it  is  used  to  interrupt  the  rhythm  and  prevent  rhythmic  monotony ; 
its  position  is  variable  in  the  line.  Jn  the  Anglo-Saxon  it  is  used 
to  mark  the  secondary  rhythm,  and  its  position  is  fixed.  It  comes 
always  between  two  successive  half-lines.  Although  the  caesura 
here  is  regularly  a  rhythmical  pause,  it  usually  coincides  with  a 
logical  pause  of  more  or  less  distinctness.  That  is,  it  can  not 
separate  the  parts  of  a  word,  nor  can  it  separate  words  that  are  in 
very  close  syntactical  relation.  For  instance,  it  can  not  separate 
a  preposition  from  the  word  it  governs,  nor  a  limiting  genitive 
from  its  noun.  There  must  be  something  of  a  logical  pause — a 
pause  in  the  sense — however  slight,  as  a  condition  for  placing  the 
caesura. 

The  caesura  is  effective,  in  connection  with  alliteration,  in 
enabling  one  to  determine  the  metrical  type  of  each  half-line. 
The  first  alliterating  word  after  the  caesura  (with  very  rare 
exceptions)  takes  the  first  rhythmical-accent  in  the  second  half- 
line,  and  is  thus  the  key-note  to  the  metrical  structure  of  the 
whole  line. 

The  secondary  rhythm  in  Anglo-Saxon  is  more  marked  than 
the  primary  rhythm ;  and  in  this  respect  it  differs  .from  Modern 
English.  There — especially  in  "run  on"  lines — the  secondary 
rhythm  is  frequently  very  faint.  In  Anglo-Saxon  this  is  the 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  9 

case  rather  with  the  primary  rhythm — emphatically  so  where  the 
rhythmical-accents  fall  on  the  adjoining  syllables  of  two  different 
feet.  But  the  secondary  rhythmic  unit — the, "  type  "  or  half-line 
— is  always  strongly  marked. 

(3)  Tertiary  Rhythm.  The  Phrase.  The  unit  of  tertiary- 
rhythm  in  Anglo-Saxon  is  the  line.  It  is  marked  to  the  ear, 
first  of  all,  by  a  pause.  This  pause  does  not  differ  in  kind  from 
that  which  marks  the  half-line.  It  is,  perhaps  as  a  rule,  of  a 
little  longer  duration,  and  the  logical  pause  with  which  it  coin- 
cides is  regularly  more  strongly  marked. 

But  the  tertiary  rhythmic  unit  is  further  marked  to  the  ear  by 
the  very  nature  of  the  rhythm  itself.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  line 
the  rhythm  is  not  one  continuous  forward  movement  as  in  the 
Modern  English,  but  the  third  and  fourth  feet,  instead  of  making 
a  progressive  continuation  of  the  first  and  second,  merely  constitute 
a  complementary  response  to  them.  At  the  close  of  the  first  half- 
line,  the  rhythm  is,  as  it  were,  suspended,  awaiting  an  answering 
response  in  the  second  half-line.  "  Phrasing "  in  music  is  a 
similar  phenomenon — though  of  much  less  frequent  occurrence, 
and  rarely  of  so  simple  structure.  The  initial  strain  in  the 
opening  measures  finds  its  complement  in  the  closing  measures  of 
the  phrase.  It  must  be  distinctly  remembered  in  this  connection, 
however,  that  phrasing  as  represented  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  line 
differs  from  the  phrase  in  Modern  English  poetry ;  in  the  latter 
it  is  a  thought-grouping  which  frequently  interrupts  the  flow  of 
the  rhythm;  in  the  former,  just  as  in  music,  it  is  a  positive 
rhythmic  factor. 

This  phrasing — effectively  re-inforced  by  alliteration,  as  we  shall 
see  later — binds  the  constituents  of  the  tertiary  rhythm  into  such  a 
definite  and  compact  whole l  that  the  line  is  recognized  by  the  ear 
as  pre-eminent  among  the  rhythmic  units.  It  is  the  tertiary 
rhythm  that  is  the  most  strongly  marked  rhythm  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  poetry. 

§  5.  ARSIS  AND  THESIS.  A  foot  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  con- 
tains regularly  (as  in  Modern  English)  two  parts :  an  accented  or 

1 ' l  Nicht  der  halbvers,  sondern  die  beiden  zusammengehorigen  Halbverse,  bilden 
ein  geschlossenes  Ganze."  Cremer,  "Metrische  und  Sprachliche  Untersuchung 
Andreas,  Guftlac,  Phoenix,"  etc. 


10  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

stressed  part,  called  the  arsis ;  and  an  unaccceuted  part,  called  the 
thesis.  There  are,  however,  feet  that  contain  only  an  arsis,  and 
others  that  contain  what  is  sometimes  called  a  "  secondary  arsis,"  * 
in  addition  to  the  regular  arsis  and  thesis.  Such  feet  are  usually 
found  in  connection  with  heavy  compound  words  containing  a 
strong  secondary  accent,  and  they  regularly  either  precede  or  fol- 
low feet  containing  no  thesis. 

CHAPTER   II. 
THE  TYPES. 

§  1.  NUMBER  OF  TYPES.  According  to  Prof.  Sievers,  there 
are  five  fundamental  "  types,"  or  kinds,  of  secondary  rhythmic 
units,  depending  upon  the  kinds  of  feet  of  which  they  are  composed, 
and  the  order  of  arrangement  of  the  accented  syllable  of  the  foot 
with  regard  to  the  unaccented.  If  the  initial  syllable  be  accented, 
it  is  called,  as  in  Modern  English,  a  descending  rhythm ;  if  the 
final  syllable  take  the  accent,  it  is  carlled  an  ascending  rhythm. 

§  2.  TYPE  A.  The  first  of  Sievers'  types,  and  the  one  of  by  far 
the  most  frequent  occurrence,  is  what  he  calls  type  A.  In  this 
type  the  initial  syllable  in  each  foot  takes  the  accent,  and  this 
accented  syllable  is  followed  by  one  or  more  unaccented  syllables. 
The  accented  syllable  is  regularly  "  long  "  in  quantity.  The  term 
quantity  is  used  in  this  discussion  in  the  classic  sense — that  is,  a 
vowel  is  considered  "  long "  when  "  long  by  nature,"  or  when 
followed  by  two  consonants.  The  writer  is  not  prepared  to  main- 
tain, however,  that  the  Anglo-Saxons  really  followed  the  classic 
rule  with  regard  to  the  length  of  syllables.  It  is  probable,  on  the 
contrary,  that  they  did  not,  but  that  they  determined  quantity  very 
much  as  is  done  in  Modern  English :  by  the  importance  of  the 
syllable,  by  the  ease  or  difficulty  of  its  enunciation,  and  by  the 
requirements  of  the  metre.  The  adoption  of  this  view  would 
simplify  many  of  the  variations  of  the  fundamental  types,  which 
are  given  in  the  following  pages.  However,  as  the  question  has 
not  yet  been  absolutely  determined,  we  have  followed  Prof.  Sievers 
in  marking  long  and  short  syllables  according  to  the  Latin  and 

1  For  the  objection  to  this  term,  see  foot-note  at  the  bottom  of  page  16. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  11 

Greek  rules  for  quantity,  when  the  syllables  occur  in  the  arsis  of 
the  foot. 

Representing  accented  syllables  (or  arses)  by  a  dash,  and  unac- 
cented syllables  (or  theses)  by  a  cross,  the  following  would  repre- 
sent the  fundamental  —  and  most  common  —  form  of  type  A  : 

«»I*.H. 

There  are  a  great  many  variations  of  this  fundamental  form  of 
the  type.  The  arsis  instead  of  being  long,  is  sometimes  short  (in 
which  case  it  is  represented  by  a  curve,  instead  of  a  dash),  and  the 
thesis,  instead  of  having  only  a  single  syllable,  may  contain  any 
number  up  to  five.  But  this  statement  with  regard  to  the  thesis 
applies  only  to  the  first  thesis.  In  this  type,  the  closing  thesis  of 
a  half-line  is  limited  to  two  syllables.1  The  occurrence  of  two  or 
three  syllables  in  the  first  thesis,  especially  if  they  are  short  and 
easily  enunciated,  is  very  common.  The  occurrence  of  more  than 
three  syllables  is  rare. 

Another  common  variation  of  type  A  is  the  substitution  of  two 
short  syllables  instead  of  one  long  syllable,  as  the  arsis  of  the  foot. 
Metrically  these  two  syllables  are  to  be  rendered  in  the  time  of  a 
single  long  syllable,  and  the  first  of  them  takes  the  principal  stress 
of  the  accent.  This  substitution  is  what  is  known  as  "  resolution," 
and  it  may  occur  in  either  foot  of  a  type. 

The  following  half-lines  are  examples  of  some  of  the  most 
common  forms  of  type  A,  the  metrical  scheme  in  every  case  being 
written  under  each. 

Wl9nc  bi  wealle.  W.  80-a2  longe  sce*olde.  W.  3-b  3 

L  X    |     £X   ||  £X   I   ,    4X     (I 

hicgan  to  hdndum.  Br.  4-a  are*  gebideS.  W.  1-b 

£    x     x  |   >:     x      ||  :£  x  x  I  £  x  || 

6ft  him  anhaga.  W.  1-a  leode  ongetan.  Ex.  90-b 


£    x        £  x  x  ^  x      .£  x  x 


6ft  ic  sceolde  ana.  W.  8-a  se  waes  haten  Wulfstan.  Br.  75-b 


xxx  ^      x 


1  According  to  Prof.  Sievers,  it  can  contain  only  one.     See  the  discussion  under 
"  rules  for  Anglo-Saxon  versification,"  page  35,  et  seq. 

2  a  indicates  first  half  -line  ;  b,  second  half-line. 


12  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

If  these  examples  be  scanned  as  Modern  English  poetry  is 
scanned,  we  shall  find  that  we  have  here  a  rhythm  very  similar  to 
our  trochaic  and  dactylic  rhythms  in  lines  of  the  same  number  of 
feet.  And,  of  more  importance,  if  we  examine  carefully,  we  shall 
find  that  in  those  feet  in  the  same  half-line  containing  theses  of  a 
dissimilar  number  of  syllables,  the  ear  demands  that  we  give  an 
equal  interval  of  time — either  by  the  slower  enunciation  of  the 
fewer-syllabled  thesis,  or  by  filling  up  that  measure  with  a 
pause — otherwise  there  is  no  perception  of  musical  rhythm. 

§  3.  TYPE  B.  The  second  of  Sievers'  types  is  type  B.  In  it 
the  thesis  of  the  foot  comes  first,  and  we  have  the  accented  syllable 
last  in  each  case.  Here,  as  in  case  of  type  A,  the  accented  syllable 
is  usually  long.  The  rhythmic  effect  is  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  anapaestic  and  the  iambic  dimeter  in  Modern  English. 

Using  the  same  marking  as  in  the  case  of  type  A,  the  following 
represents  the  most  common  form  of  type  B  :  x  x  L  \  x  L  ||. 

Here  again  there  are  numerous  variations  of  the  normal  form, 
produced  as  before,  by  substituting  a  short  syllable  for  the  long 
accented  syllable,  by  increasing  the  number  of  syllables  in  the 
thesis,  or  by  the  resolution  of  either  arsis,  or  both.  In  the  first 
thesis  we  have  examples  of  as  many  as  five  syllables  ;  in  the  second 
thesis  as  many  as  three  syllables  may  occur.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
the  fundamental  form  of  type  B  is  not  one  syllable  in  each  thesis 
(x  L  |  x  L  ||) — the  iambic  rhythm — as  it  is  in  type  A,  but  that  the 
normal  form  of  the  type  is  two  syllables  in  the  first  thesis — thus 
beginning  the  line  with  an  anapaestic  rhythm,  as  it  were. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  most  common  forms  of  type 
B,  with  the  metrical  scheme  written  under  each  : 

it  it 

ne  t5  wife  wynn.  Sea.  45-a  Ic  to  soSe  wat.  W.  11-b 

xx£|x^||  X    X    — I X    £  jl 

on  urne  eard.  Br.  58-a  and  ealde  swurd.  Br.  47-b 


XX'  X          '          X  ' 

X_JX_||  X_|X_|| 

swa  nu  monna  gehwylc.  Sea.  90-a  swa  him  Moyses  behead.  Ex.  101-b 

xx—  I    x      x      ^    ||  x        x         £  I  X    X    £   jj 

/  j_  i  j_ 

8aet  him  aet  fotum  feoll.  Br.  119-a  se  'Se  him  lange  aer.  Ex.  138-b 


xxx        .£      x   .£ 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  13 

Other  variations  of  the  normal  type  are  comparatively  rare. 

§  4.  TYPE  C.  Type  C,  the  third  fundamental  type  as  given 
by  Prof.  Sievers,  has  no  parallel  among  the  regular  rhythmic  units 
in  Modern  English  poetry.  Type  A,  in  its  simpler  forms,  is 
similar  to  the  trochaic  and  dactylic  rhythms ;  type  B  is  likewise 
similar  to  the  iambic  and  anapaestic ;  but  type  C  is  peculiar,  in 
that  it  commences  and  closes  with  a  thesis,  while  the  arses  stand 
in  juxtaposition  in  the  middle. 

Though  this  type  has  no  analogue  among  Modern  English 
rhythms,  that  it  was  genuinely  rhythmical  when  recited  as  the 
Anglo-Saxon  gleeman  gave  it,  can  hardly  be  doubted ;  only  those 
who  deny  the  musical  basis  of  Anglo-Saxon  verse,  will  refuse  to 
admit  this.  But  the  rhythm  is  not  a  combination  of  the  iambic 
and  trochaic  rhythms ;  such  a  combination  would  be  impossible  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon  half-line.  Instead,  it  is  more  nearly  what  we 
call  in  Modern  English  an  iambic  rhythm  with  a  feminine,  or 
double,  ending.  In  reciting  the  rhythm  of  this  type,  the  time 
given  to  each  foot,  just  as  in  the  other  types,  must  be  approxi- 
mately the  same.  But  its  distribution  is  here  somewhat  different. 
The  first  arsis  is  followed  by  a  pause  which  is  equivalent  to  the 
first  thesis  in  time ;  then  the  entire  second  arsis  and  second  thesis 
are  rendered  in  the  time  of  a  single  arsis,  with  the  addition  possibly 
of  as  much  time  as  is  given  to  the  second  syllable  of  a  double 
ending  in  an  iambic  rhythm  in  Modern  English.  We  have  here 
certainly  the  effect  of  the  ordinary  double  ending.  This  rapid 
rendering  of  the  arsis  and  thesis  of  the  second  foot  is  facilitated  by 
the  fact  that  the  syllables  of  this  foot  are  usually  light  and  easily 
enunciated ;  especially  is  this  the  case  with  the  arsis,  which  in 
other  types  is  regularly  long. 

The  following  are  the  two  most  common  forms  of  type  C : 

x  x  ^  |  ^  x  ||  ;   orxx^|6x||. 

There  are  then  the  usual  variations  of  these  forms,  by  the  resolu- 
tion of  the  arses,  and  by  increasing  the  number  of  syllables  in  each 
thesis  or  both.  The  number  of  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  may 
be  as  many  as  five,  while  in  the  second  thesis  it  is  rare  to  find  as 
many  as  two,  and  even  then  such  examples  can  possibly  be  classed 
under  other  types. 


14  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  most  common  forms  of  type 
C,  with  the  accompanying  metrical  scheme : 

fcaet  se  eorl  nolde.  Br.  6-a  and  on  cneo  lecge.  W.  42-b 


X          X      L    |          L    X    ||  XX 

Het  tSa  bord  beran.  Br.  62-a  wft  3am  teonhe"te.  Ex.  224-b 

x        x      .£    J      u  x  ||  xx        .£  I   u  x  || 

in  brimlade.  Sea.  30-a  gedon  wiUe.  Sea.  43-b 

x      ^    |  £  x  ||  x    .£  I    .£  x  || 

/  / 

in  uprodor.  Ex.  4-a  and  sincftege.  W.  34-b 

x   L  |  6x  ||  x        L  I  J  x  || 

There  are  fewer  variations  of  this  type  than  of  types  A  and  B. 

§  5.  TYPE  D.  The  fourth  fundamental  type,  according  to 
Sievers'  classification,  introduces  us  to  another  rhythmic  unit 
which  has  no  parallel  in  Modern  English.  It  is  a  type  which 
consists  normally  of  a  foot  of  a  single  syllable  followed  by  a  foot 
of  three  syllables.  This  type  would  seem  to  contradict  on  its  face 
the  fundamental  principle  of  all  rhythm — that  is,  that  rhythm  de- 
pends on  the  co-ordination  by  the  ear  of  equal  time-groups  of  sounds 
and  pauses,  recurring  at  regular  intervals.  But  this  contradiction 
is  only  apparent.  We  have  here  only  further  illustration  of  the 
fact  which  has  been  already  emphasized  in  Book  I.  We  saw  there 
how,  after  the  type  of  rhythm  has  been  definitely  established — after 
the  time  of  each  foot  or  measure  has  become  thoroughly  appre- 
hended by  the  ear — the  number  of  sounds  that  comprise  any 
individual  foot  may  be  varied  at  pleasure  within  certain-  limits,  and 
that  rests  and  pauses  may  be  used  to  complete  the  normal  time  of 
the  measure.  We  have  a  similar  phenomenon  here.  The  first  foot, 
although  consisting  of  a  single  syllable,  has  approximately  the  same 
time  as  the  second ;  but  not  all  of  this  time  is  consumed  in  the 
enunciation  of  the  single  syllable  ;  part  of  it  is  covered  by  a  pause, 
or  rest.  This  pause  gives  opportunity  to  fix  the  organs  of  articu- 
lation so  that  the  following  foot — which  usually  consists  of  a  heavy 
compound — may  be  more  easily  articulated.  We  do  not  deny,  of 
course,  that  it  is  possible  to  read  such  measures  without  the  pauses 
or  rests.  They  can  undoubtedly  be  read  as  prose — as  Tyrwhitt 
doubtless  read  all  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  and  as  many  readers  read 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  15 

similar  passages  in  Modern  English  poetry  to-day.  We  can  read 
a  great  deal  of  the  very  best  poetry  as  prose,  if  we  will.  But  no 
one  who  is  familiar  with  Anglo-Saxon  verse,  and  who  is  acquainted 
with  the  fundamental  principles  of  rhythm,  will  believe  that  the 
Saxon  gleeman  recited  such  types  of  rhythm  in  any  other  way  than 
with  the  pauses — for  there  is  no  other  way  in  which  he  could  recite 
them  rhythmically. 

In  the  form  in  which  Prof.  Sievers  gives  this  type,  there  is,  in 
addition  to  the  primary  accent  on  each  arsis,  what  is  called  a 
"  secondary  accent "  in  the  second  foot.  This  secondary  accent 
must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  primary  accents.  The 
latter  are  rhythmical  accents,  whose  principal  function  is  to  mark- 
off  the  rhythmical  divisions  —  that  is,  the  feet.  The  former  is 
only  a  pronunciation  accent,  the  chief  effect  of  which  is  to  empha- 
size the  relative  importance  of  its  syllable  to  others  in  the  foot,  and 
to  increase  its  "  quantity  "  relative  to  them.  Its  chief  rhythmical 
effect  perhaps  is  to  emphasize  the  pause  in  the  first  foot  by  making 
clear  the  three-syllabled  time  of  the  second  foot — which  time  the 
ear  requires  to  be  equal  in  both  feet,  if  a  rhythmical  effect  shall  be 
perceived.  If  the  Anglo-Saxon  poet  observed  this  accent  at  all  in 
his  recitation,  it  is  very  likely  it  was  only  to  the  extent  mentioned  ; 
and  that,  too,  only  in  heavy  compound  words,  containing  in  pro- 
nunciation a  heavy  secondary  accent.  It  is  in  connection  with  such 
compound  words  that  this  type  most  frequently  occurs. 

The  question  is  unsettled  as  to  whether  words  having  no 
secondary  pronunciation  accent  should  be  written  with  a  secondary 
accent  in  the  metrical  type.  As  was  seen  under  the  subject  of  word- 
accent,  there  are  some  compounds  which  would,  under  this  practice, 
be  entitled  to  three  accents ;  for  example,  brimlift&ndra  would 
require  the  scheme  :  ^  |  ^  i  x  ||  ;  A&ftercw&ft&ndra :  t.  x  |  L  ±  x  || , 
thus  giving  three  pronunciation  accents  to  such  words.  But  it  is 
questionable,  to  say  the  least,  whether  the  third  syllable  in  such 
words  takes  any  preceptible  accent  in  pronunciation,  even  in  prose. 
Those  who  hold  that  these  secondary  parts  of  compounds  must 
take  both  the  word-accent  and  the  rhythmical  accent  in  the  rhyth- 
mical scheme  (although  it  is  doubtful  in  many  instances  whether 
they  take  any  accent  at  all  in  prose)  have  as  yet  by  no  means 
established  their  contention.  The  only  metrical  reason  for  indi- 


16  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

eating  the  word-accent  here,  is  that  previously  mentioned  :  it 
emphasizes  the  demand  for  a  pause  in  the  previous  foot  to  fill  out 
that  measure  by  making  clear  the  full  length  of  the  succeeding 
measure,  to  which  the  first  must  be  equal.  This  much  can  be 
affirmed  :  a  secondary  accent  should  never  be  given  so  much  force 
as  to  obscure  the  rhythmical-accent,  or  to  cause  the  secondary 
word-accent  to  be  mistaken  for  the  rhythmical-accent.  In  such 
case  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  give  equal  time  to  each  foot, 
and  thus  the  rhythm  would  be  destroyed. 

There  are  two  positions  which  the  accented  syllable  of  the  thesis  * 
may  occupy  ;  it  may  stand  before,  or  it  may  stand  after  the  other 
syllable  of  the  thesis.  Its  function  is  the  same  in  either  case,  and 
it  is  that  which  has  already  been  explained.  The  two  forms  of 
the  type  which  this  difference  in  the  position  of  the  accented  thesis 
gives  are  known  as  D'  and  D".  The  normal  form  of  each  is  :  D', 


With  both  of  these  forms,  we  have  most  of  the  variations  already 
described  for  the  preceding  types  ;  the  arsis  may  be  short,  or  it 
may  be  resolved,  and  the  thesis  may  have  an  additional  unaccented 
syllable  in  it.  A  common  variation  is  the  insertion  of  a  syllable 
after  the  arsis  in  the  first  foot,  thus  providing  that  foot  with  a 
thesis,  and  making  it  differ  very  little  rhythmically  from  type 
A.  Especially  is  the  difference  slight  if  the  inserted  syllable  be  a 
"heavy"  one. 

Sometimes  there  occur,  in  the  case  of  heavy  compound  words 
that  usually  take  type  D  as  their  metrical  form,  two  syllables  in 
the  first  foot.  Such  examples  we  have  entered  (contrary  to  Sievers) 
under  type  A,  inasmuch  as  the  secondary  accent  —  merely  a  pro- 
nunciation accent  —  is  not  here  needed  to  show  the  full  time  of  the 
measure,  and  from  the  rhythmical  standpoint  at  least,  is  better 
omitted.  Also  there  rarely  occurs  a  syllable  inserted  before  the 
accented  syllable  of  the  thesis  in  D'. 

The  following  are  examples,  with  their  metrical  scheme,  of  the 
most  common  forms  of  both  D'  and  D"  : 

1This  expression  is  used  instead  of  the  term  "secondary  arsis"  given  by  some. 
The  latter  term  is  unfortunate  in  that  it  may  lead  to  the  impression  that  the 
syllable  in  question  is  entitled  to  a  rhythmical  accent—  which  is  emphatically  not 
the  case,  for  such  an  accent  would  confuse  the  feet  and  destroy  the  rhythm. 


I 

V 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  17 

hre5sende.  W.  102-a  bri'mliSendra.  Br.  27-b 

L   |       -       >.     X  ||  L   |   L  ±      X  || 

6ft  earmc&irig.  W.  20-a  hand  wisode.  Br.  141 -b 


faegum  fromweardum.  Sea.  71 -a  aefter  cwe^endra.  Sea.  71 -b 
«  x  f-   *      i      x||  ^x|-ix|| 

weall  wundrum  heah.  W.  98-a  bord  ord  onfeng.  Br.  110-b 

i  ri  I  ii 


hreoftan  hrim  and  snaw.  W.  48-a     hungor  innan  slat.  Sea.  11-b 

L    X   |       L          X          i  ||  £     x   \     £    x        ±  \\ 

The  variations  of  the  normal  forms  of  type  D  are  numerous, 
although  the  type  itself  does  not  occur  so  frequently  as  the  other 
types  already  discussed. 

§  6.  TYPE  E.  The  fifth  and  last  type  given  by  Prof.  Sievers 
is  type  E,  which  in  form  is  the  converse  of  D.  The  first  foot  of 
this  type  contains  three  syllables,  the  second  normally  only  one. 
Here  again  the  rhythm  is  preserved  in  the  two  feet  of  an  unequal 
number  of  syllables  by  supplementing  the  monosyllabic  foot  with 
a  pause,  the  equivalent  of  the  difference  between  the  time  con- 
sumed in  enunciating  the  sound  of  that  foot  and  those  of  the  other 
foot.  The  pause,  coming  at  the  end  of  the  line,  is  easily  and 
accurately  measured  by  the  ear. 

We  have  here  the  abrupt  effect  witli  which  we  are  familiar  in 
music,  where  the  measure  is  completed  by  a  "  rest."  The  signifi- 
cance of  this  abrupt  effect  noted  by  the  ear,  is  better  appreciated 
if  we  remember  that  the  single  syllable  of  the  monosyllabic  foot 
is  not  enunciated  abruptly,  but  is  really  prolonged  beyond  the  time 
of  the  arsis  of  the  other  foot.  This  prolonging  of  the  syllable  is 
itself  the  result  of  an  effort  of  the  "  rhythmic  sense  "  to  complete 
the  measure.  The  abrupt  effect  is  felt  only  because  the  single 
monosyllable  cannot  be  held  the  length  of  time  required  to  give 
the  two  heavy  syllables  plus  the  light  syllable  of  the  thesis,  of  the 
other  foot.  The  pause  has  to  be  inserted  to  complete  the  mono- 
syllabic measure.  This  type  is  itself  strong  evidence  of  the  musical 
basis  of  Anglo-Saxon  verse. 


18  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

Type  E,  as  in  the  case  of  type  D,  is  restricted  almost  exclusively 
to  heavy  compounds  occurring  in  connection  with  a  single  mono- 
syllabic word.  If  the  compound  is  followed  by  more  than  a  single 
syllable,  the  half-line  is  classed  under  type  A  (following  Sievers), 
in  spite  of  the  heavy  compound  word  in  the  first  foot.  These 
compounds  which  give  type  E  have,  of  course,  a  secondary  word- 
accent  on  the  second  component  part.  The  function  which  this 
accent  plays  is  similar  to  that  of  the  secondary  accent  in  type  D. 
It  is  merely  a  word-accent,  and  must  not  be  given  the  function  of 
a  rhythmical-accent.  Whether  it  should  appear  at  all  in  the 
metrical  scheme,  is  the  same  question  that  was  discussed  there, 
and  the  reasons  pro  and  con  are  the  same.  We  shall  generally 
follow  Sievers'  precedent  in  using  it,  though  he  uses  it  also  in 
instances  where  there  is  apparently  little  justification  for  it  from 
the  rhythmical  standpoint. 

In  this  type,  as  in  the  preceding,  there  are  two  positions  which 
the  accented  syllable  of  the  thesis  may  occupy.  It  may  precede 
the  unaccented  part  of  the  thesis,  or  it  may  follow  it.  The  latter 
position  is  rare. 

The  names  given  to  the  two  forms  of  the  type  arising  from  this 
difference  in  position  of  the  accented  part  of  the  thesis,  are  £ 

and  E.     Their  normal  forms  are  :  E,  L  ±  x  |  L  ||  ;  E,  L  x  i  |  L  \\  . 

We  have  in  addition  to  these,  the  ordinary  variations  of  the 
fundamental  forms :  that  is,  by  the  resolution  of  the  arses,  by  the 
substitution  of  short  syllables  for  the  long  accented  syllables,  or 
by  the  insertion  of  an  additional  syllable  in  the  thesis,  either  before 
or  after  the  accented  syllable  of  the  thesis. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  common  variations  of  both 

E  and  E,  with  the  accompanying  metrical  scheme : 
freomaegum  feorr.     W.  21-a.         hnmcealde  sae.     W.  4-b. 


m6rew£rges  mod.    Sea.  12-a.  f&dohilte  swurd.    Br.  166-b. 


ix 


hordwearda  hryre.    Ex.  35-a.         Cneomaga  fela.    Ex.  21-b. 

L          IX   1          6x  || 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  19 

sealtySa  gelac.    Sea.  3  5  -a.  eadigra  gehwam.    Ex.  4-b. 


§  7.  OTHER  POSSIBLE  TYPES.  Prof.  Sievers  includes  all  the 
metrical  forms  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  half-line  under  these  five  fun- 
damental types,  with  their  variations.  In  this  he  has  been  followed 
by  all  who  accept  his  theory  of  Anglo-Saxon  prosody.  However, 
there  are  some  examples  which  are  usually  classed  under  type  E 
that  seem  to  suggest  a  different  division  into  feet,  and  one  that  is 
more  in  accord  with  the  logical  relation  of  the  words  themselves. 
Such  are  the  following,  which  have  been  selected  from  Exodus  ; 
the  suggested  metrical  scheme  is  written  under  each  : 

Witrod  gefeol.     Ex.  491-b.  deop  lean  gescgod.     Ex.  506-b. 

*x       x  *  L        x     x     L 


meredeaS  geswealh.    Ex.    512-b.     ham  eft  ne  com.     Ex.  507-b. 

&      x  I  x      -  II  -      x  I  x     -  II 

Maegen  call  gedreas.    Ex.  499-b.     Josepes  gestreon.     Ex.  587-b. 

$2  x   |   x       £    ||  £  x  x     |   x        .£  || 

faerspell  becwom.     Ex.  135-b.        Wraecmpn  gebad.    Ex.  137-b. 

L       x     |     x       L  ||  t.      x'  |     x    L    || 

ohtnied  gescraf.     Ex.  137-b.  grimhelm  gespeon.     Ex.  174-b. 

»  X      I    X  ^  «  X     I    X  j£ 

Also  lines  191,  313,  303,  354,  371,  407,  459,  461,  and  others. 
It  is  to  be  noted  in  nearly  all  of  these  examples  that  the  weak 
syllable  "  ge,"  which  is  logically  closely  connected  with  the  word 
to  which  it  is  prefixed,  is  the  third  syllable  in  the  half-line.  In  a 
rhythmical  scheme  it  would  go  much  better,  from  the  logical 
standpoint,  with  the  word  to  which  it  belongs,  rather  than  the 
preceding  word ;  and  it  is  doubtful,  to  say  the  least,  whether  it 
should  be  placed  under  a  type  that  will  separate  it  from  the  word 
of  which  it  is  a  part.  We  have  no  instance  where  an  inflection 
ending — which  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  "  ge  "  in  the  intimacy 
of  its  connection  with  the  word  to  which  it  belongs — is  thus 
separated  from  the  stem  of  its  word.  In  fact,  it  is  against  the 
rule  for  a  rhythmical  unit  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  word  (com- 


20  On  Anglo-Saxon   Versification. 

pounds  of  course,  being  an  exception),  inasmuch  as  each  foot 
should  always  have  at  least  some  degree  of  logical  unity  in  itself. 

In  addition  to  this,  nothing  can  be  said  from  the  rhythmical 
standpoint  against  the  division  of  the  half-line  as  we  have  marked 
it  above ;  the  rhythm  itself  suggests  that  division.  However, 
since  the  examples  are  so  rare,  (they  occur  almost  exclusively  in 
the  second  half-line)  we  have  followed  Sievers  and  classed  such 
examples  under  E,  rather  than  make  a  separate  fundamental  type 
under  which  to  classify  them. 

§  8.  KELATIVE  FREQUENCY  OF  EACH  TYPE.  Of  the  five 
accepted  types  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  half-line,  those  expressing  a 
descending  rhythm  are  the  most  abundant.  A  itself  is  the  type 
of  nearly  half  of  all  the  lines.  This,  it  will  be  observed,  is  just 
the  opposite  of  what  is  true  in  Modern  English.  There  the  des- 
cending rhythm — the  trochaic  and  dactylic — are  rare  compared 
with  the  ascending  iambic  and  anapaestic  rhythms.  The  ratio  of 
the  descending  to  the  ascending  rhythms  in  Modern  English  poetry 
has  been  estimated  to  be  about  1  to  1,000 ;  in  Anglo-Saxon  it  is 
about  5  to  3.  Type  C  is  classed,  of  course,  as  an  ascending 
rhythm ;  types  D  and  E,  as  descending  rhythms. 

We  give  here  the  number  of  times  the  respective  types  occur  in 
the  Beowulf,  Elene,  Juliana,  Crist,  Andreas,  GuSlac,  Phoenix, 
Exodus,  Battle  of  Maldon,  Wanderer,  and  Seafarer.  The  figures 
for  the  Beowulf  are  those  given  by  Prof.  Sievers ;  for  the  next 
six,  by  Dr.  Cremer. 

First  half-line.  Second  half-line. 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

Beowulf 

1701 

293 

501 

454 

138 

1118 

721 

564 

403 

329 

Elene 

562 

202 

255 

211 

71 

471 

403 

259 

101 

61 

Juliana 

346 

106 

141 

113 

22 

277 

218 

154 

40 

35 

Crist 

703 

303 

278 

284 

90 

727 

468 

275 

99 

88 

Andreas 

748 

225 

348 

306 

74 

736 

373 

340 

166 

92 

GuSlac 

673 

161 

238 

169 

67 

491 

389 

301 

78 

52 

Phoenix 

322 

106 

96 

116 

31 

296 

197 

131 

28 

22 

Exodus 

296 

43 

67 

107 

49 

297 

78 

51 

52 

85 

Battle  of  Maldon 

187 

62 

28 

22 

19 

171 

73 

50 

17 

11 

Wanderer 

50 

23 

23 

12 

3 

60 

14 

21 

7 

9 

Seafarer 

50 

11 

19 

15 

5 

40 

21 

25 

9 

5 

Sum     5638  1535  1994  1809  569     4684  2855  2171  1000  789 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  21 

Total  number  of  half-lines,  23,144 ;  whole  lines,  11,572. 

Total  of  each  type  :  A,  10,322;  B,  4,490;  C,  4,165  ;  D,  2809  ; 
E,  1,358. 

Total  of  descending  rhythm,  14,489 ;  of  ascending  rhythm,  8,655. 

§  9.  UNION  OF  TYPES  IN  THE  LINE.  REPETITION  OF 
THE  SAME  TYPE.  With  regard  to  the  union  of  the  types  in  the 
whole  line,  investigation  so  far  has  not  been  able  to  derive  any 
very  definite  laws.  Dr.  Cremer,  after  a  careful  study  of  some 
7,500  lines,  concludes  that,  in  a  general  way,  a  descending  rhythm 
in  the  first  half-line  is  likely  to  be  followed  by  an  ascending 
rhythm  in  the  second — the  ratio  'being  about  3  to  1,  and  that  the 
character  of  the  alliteration  in  the  first  type  is  influential  in  deter- 
mining the  type  that  will  follow.  He  shows  that  type  A  with 
alliteration  in  the  first  foot  only,  is  followed  approximately  twice 
as  often  by  an  ascending  rhythm  as  is  the  case  when  there  is 
alliteration  in  both  feet  of  the  first  type ;  and  four  and  a  half 
times  as  often  as  when  there  is  alliteration  in  the  second  foot  only. 

A  careful  study  of  the  Wanderer,  Seafarer,  Exodus,  and  Battle 
of  Maldon,  shows  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  repeat  the  same  type, 
not  so  often  in  the  same  line  perhaps,  but  in  the  same  half-line  of 
two  consecutive  lines — sometimes  of  three  or  four.  This  repetition 
is  most  frequent  in  the  case  of  type  A,  because  of  the  preponder- 
ance of  that  type.  Of  the  entire  2200  half-lines  in  these  four 
poems,  we  find  the  same  type  repeated  in  the  same  line,  or  appear- 
ing in  two  consecutive  lines,  253  times  ;  in  three  consecutive  lines, 
22  times ;  and  in  four  consecutive  lines,  3  times ;  thus  making 
a  total  of  278  lines,  or  about  one-eighth  of  the  whole.  These 
repetitions  are  distributed  among  the  various  types  as  follows : 
A  208  examples  of  the  occurrence  in  two  consecutive  lines,  20  of 
the  triple  occurrence,  and  3  of  the  quadruple  occurrence;  B  17 
examples  of  the  double  occurrence,  and  1  of  the  triple  occurrence  ; 
C  1 1  examples  of  the  double  occurrence,  and  one  of  the  triple ; 
D  10  examples  of  the  double  occurrence ;  and  E  7  examples  of 
the  double  occurrence. 

The  most  common  position  taken  by  the  repeated  types,  is  the 
second  half-line  for  each.  Of  this  we  have  68  examples  of  the 
double  occurrence,  16  of  the  triple,  and  3  of  the  quadruple.  Of 


22  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

each  occurring  in  the  first  half,  we  have  47  examples  in  the  case 
of  the  double  occurrence,  and  6  of  the  triple.  Of  the  occurrence 
of  the  first  in  the  second  half  of  the  first  line,  and  the  second  in 
the  first  half  of  the  second,  we  have  59  examples.  Of  the  occur- 
rence of  the  first  in  the  first  half  of  the  first  line,  and  the  second 
in  the  second  half  of  the  second,  we  have  46  examples.  And  of 
the  repetition  of  the  same  type  in  the  same  line,  we  have  33 
examples.  From  this  it  would  seem  that  the  poet  sought  to  avoid 
the  monotony  that  might  arise  from  the  repetition  of  the  same  type 
in  the  same  line. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  double,  triple,  and  quadruple 
occurrence,  with  the  repeated  type  in  the  most  common  position : 

it  it 

in  brimlade  bldan  sceolde. 

i  i 

Nap  nihtscua  n6r&an  snlwde.    Sea.  30-31. 

ofer  leodwSrum  tige  scman, 

byrnSnde  beam.  Mace  stodon 

ofer  sceotendum  sclre  leoman.    Ex.  110-111-112. 

in  eorSscrdefe  edrl  gehydde : 
yiSde  swa  ftisne  eardgeard         aelda  Scyppend, 

6"$  ftaet  btirgwara  breaJitma  lease, 

eald  6nta  gewe6rc  idlu  stodon.    W.  84-85-86-87. 

The  conclusion  seems  to  be  that  the  poet  allowed  himself  great 
latitude  in  combining  his  types  into  the  line,  and  that  he  was 
governed  only  by  the  general  principles  of  rhythm. 

§  10.  THE  ANACRUSIS  (or  Prelude).  In  types  beginning 
with  an  accented  syllable,  we  sometimes  find  one  or  two — very 
rarely  more — unimportant  unaccented  syllables  preceding  the  type 
proper.  These  constitute  what  is  called  an  anacrusis,  or  prelude. 
They  are  not  to  be  considered  as  an  essential  part  of  the  type,  and 
are  to  be  recited  very  faintly  and  hurriedly — perhaps  slurred. 

The  anacrusis  is  not  peculiar  to  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  but  is 
found  in  Latin  and  Greek,  and  even  in  Modern  English.  It  does 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  23 

Dot  seem  to  answer  any  special  rhythmic  purpose,  or  to  perform 
any  designed  function.  It  can  contain  no  important  or  accented 
word.  It  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  license  of  which  the  poet  avails 
himself  when  it  would  be  inconvenient  to  put  the  words  which 
constitute  the  anacrusis  in  any  other  place. 

The  anacrusis  occurs  most  frequently  —  as  we  should  expect, 
since  it  is  extra-metrical  —  in  the  first  half-line  ;  though  we  also 
have  a  number  of  examples  in  the  second-half.  Types  B  and  C 
begin  with  a  thesis,  so  they  can  not  take  an  anacrusis.  The  extra 
short  syllables  there,  being  prefixed  to  the  thesis,  merely  make  the 
expanded  thesis  very  common  in  both  of  these  types. 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  anacrusis,  which  occurs 
most  frequently  in  type  A,  only  rarely  in  type  D,  and  more  rarely 
still  in  E  :  — 

ftaet  he  gewyrce.  Sea.  74-a  in  blacum  reafum.  Ex.  212-b 

^:^x|^x||  x   :  .£    x  |    ^    x  || 

Saette  he  Saet  daegweorc.  Ex.  151  -a   mid  gafole  forgyldon.  Br.  32-b 

x  x  :  .£     x  |       L      x||  x  :  ux  x  x  |      .£   x  || 

ne  ymbe  owiht  elles.  Sea.  46-a  gehyre  se  Se  wille.  Ex.  7-b 

xxx|.£x|.£x||  x:^xxx|^x|| 

ofercom  mid  8y  campe.  Ex.  21-a         Saet  he  ealdordom.  Ex.  317-a 

xx:£xx|^x||  x    :  ^  |  ^    x   i  || 

/  /  /          v 

Sa  hwile  se  he  mid  hdndura.  Br.  14-a  t5aet  fiaer  modiglice.     Br.  200-a 
xr^xxx     x|     ^lx||  x     :^|^xix|| 

Net5urfonmeembeSturmere.Br.249-a  ageat  gylp  wera.  Ex.  514-a 


«aet  hie  lifigende.  Ex.  264-a 

X    IL  ±   X 


24  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

CHAPTER   III. 
ALLITERATION. 

§  1.  IN  GENERAL.  Alliteration  consists,  as  in  Modern  Eng- 
lish, in  the  use  of  a  succession  of  words  with  the  same  initial 
sound.  There  is  this  difference,  however :  each  vowel  or  diph- 
thong may  alliterate  with  any  other  vowel  or  diphthong ;  as, 

ddl  oftfte  2/ldo         o&Se  £cgh6te.    Sea.  70. 

Each  consonant  alliterates  only  with  itself,  except  that  g  alliter- 
ates also  with  etymological  j  (i)  ;  as 

ne  ^old^i^fan,         swylce  iu  wearon.    Sea.  83. 
(/pmelfeax  ^nornath,         wat  his  mwine.    Sea.  92. 
ofer  <7re"nne  ^rtind  :         Judisc  feSa.    Ex.  312. 

Until  the  later  Anglo-Saxon  period,  the  consonant  groups  sc, 
sp,  and  st,  were  treated  as  single  letters,  each  group  alliterating 
only  with  itself,  and  not  with  the  single  initial  consonants ;  as, 

StormsiS  ftaer  stfanclifu  beotan,     $aer  him  s£6arn  oncwaeiS.    Sea.  23. 
Se  ges^elade         stlfte  grtindas.    Sea.  104. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  period,  however,  this  practice  was  not 
observed.  Also  then  an  initial  h  before  a  vowel  was  frequently 
disregarded,  the  vowel  itself  alliterating ;  as, 

H<5lof<§rnus         ^nlyfige'ndes.    Judith,  180. 

Syllables  after  prefixes  such  as  be-,  ge-,  prepositions,  etc.,  may 
be  considered  as  initial,  and  take  alliteration ;  as, 

Mtre  6reostceare         ge&iden  haebbe.    Sea.  4. 

/  V 

be/iongen  /trimgcielum       Aaegl  scurum  fleag.     Sea.  17. 
ne  swete  forswelgan         ne  sar  gefelan.    Sea.  95. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  25 

Likewise  in  compounds,  the  second  part  of  the  compound,  as 
well  as  the  first,  may  be  considered  as  initial,  and  alliterate ;  as, 

/      j_ 
ne  ^6ld^i6fan,         swylce  iu  waeron.    Sea.  83.    Also  W.  3. 

In  the  texts  which  give  both  c  and  &,  they  are  the  same  letter 
from  the  standpoint  of  alliteration,  as  well  as  in  sound,  and  so 
alliterate  with  each  other  ;  as, 

cwen  to  gebe"ddan.     Hafde  Ayninga  wtildor.    Beo.  666. 

(Harrison  &  Sharp.) 

§  2.  FUNCTIONS  OF  ALLITERATION.  (1)  Key  to  Primary 
Rhythm.  Alliteration,  which  in  Modern  English  poetry  occurs 
chiefly  as  an  element  of  tone-color  conducing  to  melody,  performs 
in  Anglo-Saxon  verse  a  function  much  more  essential  from  the 
rhythmic  standpoint.  It  is  the  key  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  versifi- 
cation, and  divides  the  line  into  feet,  just  as  the  bar  marks  off  the 
notes  of  music  into  measures.  Because  of  the  varying  number  of 
syllables  in  the  thesis,  and  because  of  the  different  positions  of  the 
rhythmical-accent  in  the  various  types,  it  would  be  almost  impos- 
sible in  many  cases,  for  the  ear  to  make  that  co-ordination  of  the 
recurrent  groups  of  sounds  which  results  in  the  perception  of 
rhythm.  In  Modern  English  poetry  this  co-ordination  is  effected 
by  the  regular  coincidence  of  the  word-accent,  or  of  the  sentence- 
accent,  or  of  both,  with  the  rhythmical  accent ;  but  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  the  force  of  these  accents  is  immensely  intensified  by  alliter- 
ation, and  the  co-ordination  rendered  correspondingly  easier. 
Alliteration  or  "head  rhyme"  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  almost 
as  effective  in  marking  off  the  lines  into  feet,  as  end-rhyme  is  in 
Modern  English  in  dividing  poetry  into  lines ;  and  the  function 
performed  in  each  case  is  similar.  The  alliteration  comes  either 
at  the  beginning  of  the  foot  (as  in  types  A,  D,  E,  and  sometimes 
C),  or  at  the  end  (as  in  type  B,  and  sometimes  C) ;  and  as  the 
caesura  divides  the  line  into  halves  of  two  feet  each,  we  are  able 
to  determine  these  feet  with  as  absolute  certainty  as  in  Modern 
English  versification,  although  the  thesis  may  contain  as  many  as 
four  or  five  syllables. 

The  longer  the  line  and  the  more  difficult  the  co-ordination,  the 


26  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

more  copious  is  the  alliteration.  In  the  "  long  lines,"  consisting 
of  six  feet,  double  alliteration  is  the  rule  in  the  first  half-line,  and 
sometimes  it  is  threefold  ;  as, 

#uman  to  'Sam  </yldnan  <7ylde  fte  he  him  to  #6de  geteod.  Dan.  204. 
^w^orfon  fta  Aa&$enan  Meftas  fram  "Sam  Aalgan  cnihton.  Dan.  267. 

In  those  types  composed  of  feet  of  an  unequal  number  of 
syllables — that  is,  D  and  E — double  alliteration  is  much  more 
common  than  in  the  simpler  types,  A,  B,  and  C.  Dr.  Frucht  in 
his  "  Metr.  und  Sprach.  zu  Elene,  Juliana  und  Crist,"  finds  that 
for  10,000  half-lines  of  each  type,  there  is  double  alliteration  in 
5,347  of  type  A,  3,236  of  type  B,  1,090  of  C,  7,736  of  D,  and 
6,462  of  E.  This  increase  of  alliteration  in  the  types  composed 
of  feet  containing  an  unequal  number  of  syllables,  helps  the  ear 
to  co-ordinate  more  readily  these  groups  composed  of  such  unequal 
number  of  syllables. 

(2).  Means  of  Binding  together  ike  half-lines.  Another 
function  of  alliteration  is  to  bind  together  the  two  half-lines 
into  the  normal  line.  Although  the  half-lines  are  separated  by 
the  caesural  pause,  and  in  one  sense  each  is  complete  in  itself, 
yet  the  recurring  alliteration  cements  them  into  a  more  compre- 
hensive and  artistic  whole,  making,  as  already  said,  the  line,  and 
not  the  half-line,  the  pre-eminent  rhythmic  unit  in  Anglo-Saxon 
poetry. 

Sometimes  we  have  what  might  be  considered  as  an  approach  to 
a  modified  form  of  strophic  structure.  The  alliterating  letter  is 
repeated  in  two,  or  even  three  consecutive  lines,  thus  binding  them 
more  closely  together,  rhythmically  at  least,  than  are  the  others ;  as, 

j_^ 
w^nede  to  wiste  :  wyrm  call  gedreas. 

for  -Son  wat  se  sceal  his  winedryhtnes.    "W.  36-37. 

Mae"g  ic  be  me  sylfum  so^giedd  wr6can 

srSas  s£cgan,  hu  ic  geswincdagurn.    Sea.  1-2. 

hwa  iSaere  waelstowe  wealdan  mote. 

TFodon  fta  waelwulfas,  for  waStere  ne  mtiron, 

wicinga  werod  w£st  ofer  Pantan.    Br.  95-96-97. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 


27 


Additional  examples  are :  W.  48-49,  64-65 ;  Sea.  63-64,  85-86  ; 
Br.  29-30,  21-22,  71-72,  81-82,  110-111,  136-137,  and  others. 
A  yet  more  common  phenomenon  is  the  recurrence  of  the  same 
alliterating  letter  in  every  other  line,  and  even  in  four  alternate 
lines  in  succession.  The  question  naturally  suggests  itself  here 
as  to  whether  this  produces  an  effect  at  all  similar  to  that  of 
Modern  English  rhyme.  The  following  are  examples  : 

iSonne  he  be  clifum  cnossa<5  calde  ge^rungen. 

forste  gebunden, 


Waeron  fet  mine 
caldum  clommum 
fta  he  forS  eode, 
iSaet  he  mid  orde 
/lotan  on  ftam/olce 

forwegen  mid  his  waepne. 

_/_  / 

/rynd  and  ge/eran, 

"Sonne  eall  iSisse  worulde 

/ 
swa  nil  missenlice 

winde  bewaune 

hrime  bihrorene, 

/  / 

TForiaiS  'Sa  wlnsalo, 

dreame  bidrorene ; 
wlouc  bi 


"Saer  ^a  ceare  seofedun.  Sea.  8-10. 


gemunde, 
anne  geraehte 
ftaet  se  on/6ldan  laeg 
Ongann  iSa  winas  manian, 
Saethi/orSeoden.  Br.  225-229. 
weste  stondeft, 
geond  $isne  middangeard 
weallas  stonda'S, 
hryiSge  ^a  ^deras. 
wal'dend  licga'S 

duguS  4all  gecrong 

/  / 

sume  wig  fornom.     W.  74-80. 

Other  examples  are :  W.  5-7,  6-8,  14-16,  26-28,  65-67,  85-87, 
98-100  ;  Sea.  28-30,  32-34,  54-56,  89-93  ;  Br.  2-4,  15-17,  18-20, 
etc. 

(3).  Element  of  Tone-color.  Alliteration  has  incidentally 
the  additional  function  of  ornamentation,  as  in  Modern  English. 
The  repetition  of  the  sound  is  pleasing  to  the  ear,  and  adds  melody 
to  the  line.  Alliteration  is  an  element  of  that  "  tone-color "  in 
which  the  ear  takes  such  delight. 


28  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

§  3.  RULES  OF  ALLITEKATION.  The  alliteration  must  fall 
upon  the  most  important  word,  or  words,  in  the  half-line.  It 
usually  coincides  with  the  word-accent,  and  it  must  coincide  with 
the  sentence-accent,  and  with  the  rhythmical-accent;  frequently 
there  is  a  conjunction  of  alliteration  with  all  three  accents. 

As  a  rule,  pronouns,  conjunctions,  prepositions,  and  such  parts 
of  speech,  do  not  take  alliteration.  This  falls  most  frequently 
upon  nouns,  and  substantives  in  general ;  and  of  two  substantives 
occurring  together,  the  more  important  always  takes  the  allitera- 
tion. Prepositions  and  similar  words  may  alliterate,  however, 
when  they  are  especially  emphatic,  and  thus  become  of  leading 
importance  in  the  sentence  ;  as, — 

Hwaet !  ge  nu  eagum  to  on  loeiaiS 

edldum  edrue  and  aefter  «6n.  Phoen.  237-238. 

GeAyrst  -Su,  saelida  Awaet  this  folc  s^cgeiS  ?  Br.  45. 

h6t  iSa  up  b6ran  a£$elinga  gestreon,  Beo.  1920. 

Nouns  (including  the  substantive  forms  of  the  verb)  and  adjec- 
tives are,  in  general,  the  most  important  words  in  a  sentence,  and 
consequently  most  often  take  the  alliteration.  Of  two  or  more 
nouns  of  equal  importance  in  the  same  half-line,  the  one  which 
occupies  the  emphatic  position — that  is,  which  comes  first — regu- 
larly takes  the  alliteration.  If  any  other  word  should  be  especially 
emphatic,  however,  the  alliteration  falls  upon  that,  no  matter  what 
part  of  speech  it  is.  The  principle  is,  that  alliteration  marks  the 
important  idea,  by  whatever  word  it  is  expressed. 

§  4.  PLACE  OF  ALLITEEATION.  Alliteration  falls  always 
upon  the  arsis,  never  upon  the  thesis  of  a  foot. 

In  every  complete  line  there  must  be  at  least  one  alliterating 
word  in  each  half.  There  is  no  principle  in  Anglo-Saxon  versi- 
fication more  inflexible  than  this.  The  very  few  lines  which  show 
an  entire  lack  of  alliteration  are  due,  almost  without  question,  to 
a  corruption  of  the  text.  In  the  four  poems  analysed  in  Book  II, 
Part  II,  there  are  only  three  such ;  they  are  :  Sea.  25,  Ex.  339, 
and  Ex.  413.  The  first  of  these  is  marked  as  corrupt  in  the  text; 
there  is  a  break  in  the  manuscript  in  the  line  following  the  second  ; 
and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  third  is  likewise  defective. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  29 

A  foot  is  allowed  only  one  alliterative  word ;  where  examples 
occur  apparently  outside  of  this  rule,  they  are  to  be  considered  as 
merely  accidental,  and  not  as  an  intentional  effort  for  triple  allitera- 
tion in  the  line.  Such  examples  are  the  following : — 

up  ateah  on  slaep ;  £gesan  stddon.  Ex.  490. 

d"ngan  ofer  eorSan  ^rrfelafe.  Ex.  403. 

Oft  ic  scolde  ana  whtna  gehwylce.  W.  8. 

adl  o$$e  yldo  tf»Se  fcghete.  Sea.  70. 

iis  sceal  ord  and  ecg  aer  geseman.  Br.  60. 

TFind  wearS  JFulfmaer  waelraeste  geceas.  W.  113. 

There  is  usually  only  one  alliterative  word  in  the  second  half- 
line  ;  and  as  a  rule,  that  is  in  the  arsis  of  the  first  foot.  This  is 
the  principal  alliterating  word  in  the  line,  and  it  is  sometimes 
called  the  "  head  stave."  In  the  four  poems  referred  to  above, 
only  two  certain  examples  of  lack  of  alliteration  in  this  place  were 
met  with ;  these  are  : 

sigora  gesynto,  -Saer  ge  srSien.  Ex.  272. 

saes  act  6nde.  Wigbord  scmon.  Ex.  466. 
We  have  also : 

ra$e  aet  Mde  Offa  for&eawen,  Br.  288, 

but  the  line  is  marked  in  the  text  as  being  corrupt. 

Alliteration  in  both  feet  in  the  second  half-line  is  rare.  The 
following  are  examples : 

</rete$  ^liwstafum          6re6rne  ^eondsceawaiS.  W.  52.     Also  15. 
adl  o$$e  2/ldo  63$e  ecghete.  Sea.  70. 

Me  sfndon  to  ^  seamenn  snelle.  Br.   29.     Also  165,   198, 

230,  32,  44. 

Seodenholde  $a  waes  -Sridda  wic.  Ex.  87.     Also  187, 

190,  295,  451,  38,  113,  298. 


30  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

More  unusual  still  in  normal  lines,  is  double  alliteration  in  both 
half-lines.  It  occurs  in  the  following  places  in  these  poems  : 

ftaet  ge  $isne  ^arraes         mid  ^afole  for^yldon.  Br.  32. 

2/rre  and  dndraed  dgeaf  him  dndsware.  Br.  44. 

/r6cne  ge/ylled  /rumbearna  /ela.  Ex.  38.  Also  113,  398. 

Also  Sea.  70  and  W.  52  and  111  (long  lines). 

By  far  the  most  common  type  of  alliteration  is  double  alliter- 
ation in  the  first  half-line,  with  alliteration  in  the  first  foot  only 
of  the  second  half-line  ;  as,  — 

Oft  him  anhaga  are  geblde^S.  W.  1. 

Mtre  6reostc£are  ge&iden  haebbe.  Sea.  4. 

/eorr  a/ysan  and/orS  gangan.  Br.  3. 

/ 
wraeclico  wordriht         wera  cneorissum.  Ex.  3. 

Of  the  total  1114  complete  lines  in  the  Wanderer,  Seafarer, 
Battle  of  Maldon,  and  Exodus,  570  —  more  than  half  —  are  of  this 
type.  The  number  in  each  poem  is  :  W.  70  ;  Sea.  58  ;  Br.  147  ; 
and  Ex.  295.  In  proportion  to  the  number  of  lines  in  each  poem, 
the  occurrence  of  each  type  is  fairly  uniform  ;  it  comprises  about 
61%  of  W.,  55%  of  Sea.,  45%  of  Br.,  and  51%  of  Ex. 

The  next  most  common  type  is  alliteration  in  the  first  foot  only 
in  each  half-line;  as, 

e6rlas  fornomon  c^sca  $r$e.  W.  99. 


edrfoShw'ile  6ft  Srowade.  Sea.  3. 

$aet  se  eorl  nolde         i/rhfto  geftolian.  Br.  66. 

V  / 

Mgendra  gehwam        Zangsumne  raed.  Ex.  6. 

There  are  294  examples  of  this  type  —  a  little  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  entire  number.  17  lines  of  this  number  might  pos- 
sibly be  classed  under  other  types.  The  type  is  distributed  as 
follows  among  the  individual  poems  :  W.  25,  Sea.  29,  Br.  69, 
and  Ex.  171.  The  occurrence  is  not  quite  as  uniform  proportion- 
ally as  in  the  preceding  type.  The  following  is  the  per  cent,  of 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  31 

each  poem  of  this  type  :  W.  22  %,  Sea.  27  %,  Br.  21  %,  and  Ex. 
30%. 

The  third  type  in  frequency  of  occurrence  is  alliteration  in  the 
second  foot  of  the  first  half-line  and  in  the  first  foot  of  the  second 
half-line;  as, 

J—. 

ftaet  br3  in  eorle  ^dryhten  fteaw.  W.  12. 

Maeg  ic  be  me  sylfum  so^giedd  wre"can.  Sea.  1. 

be  'Sam  man  mihte  oncnawan  ftaet  se  cwlht  nolde.  Br.  96. 

ftaer  him  geseald  sigora  waldend.  Ex.  16. 

This  type  numbers  218  examples,  30  of  which  could  possibly 
be  included  elsewhere.  They  are  distributed  as  follows  :  W.  14, 
Sea.  12,  Br.  97,  Ex.  95.  The  per  cent,  of  each  poem  under  this 
type  is:  W.  12%,  Sea.  11%,  Br.  30%,  Ex.  16J%.  We  note 
here  that  the  occurrence  of  this  type  is  by  no  means  uniform  in 
these  poems,  and  that  the  frequency  of  its  use  corresponds  in  a 
general  way  with  the  supposed  date  of  the  poem.  The  earlier 
poems,  the  Wanderer,  the  Seafarer,  and  Exodus  use  it  very  spar- 
ingly ;  while  the  Battle  of  Maldon,  which  comes  nearly  three 
centuries  later,  has  nearly  one-third  of  the  entire  number  of  its 
lines  of  this  type.  The  explanation  of  the  cause  of  this  increase, 
and  its  rhythmical  significance,  is  a  question  beyond  the  scope  of 
this  discussion. 

The  remaining  types  of  alliteration  are  insignificant  in  their 
occurrence.  We  find  seven  examples  of  the  first  foot  in  the  first 
half-line  alliterating  with  both  feet  in  the  second  half-line ;  as, 

ne  maeg  we"rigmod  wyrde  wrSstondan.  W.  15. 

Me  s&idon  to  the'         sa^menn  snelle.  Br.  29.  Also  165,  198,  230. 

/    /    _%_ 
swa  $aer  e6rp  w6rod         ec  anlaeddon.  Ex.  194.    Also  97. 

Four  of  these  examples  are  in  the  late  poem,  the  Battle  of  Maldon. 

There  is  one  example  in  these  poems  of  the  first  foot  in  the  first 

half-line  alliterating  with  the  second  foot  in  the  second  half-line : 

saes  aet  ende.         Wigbord  scmon.  Ex.  466. 


32  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

Also  a  single  example  of  the  second  foot  only  in  each  half,  allit- 
erating : 

rafte  wearS  aet  Mlde         Oifa  forAeawen.  Br.  288. 

This  line  is  marked  in  the  text  as  probably  corrupt. 

Again  we  have  both  feet  in  the  first-half  alliterating  with  the 
second  foot  in  the  second-half;  three  examples  : 

/  /  / 

wigan  wigheardne,         se  waes,  haten  JFulfstan.  Br.  75. 

/  /  / 

<7od  on  greote  a  maeg  gnornian.  Br.  315. 

j_          i 
sigora  gesynto  ftaer  ge  srSien.  Ex.  272. 

The  first  of  these  is  marked  in  the  text  as  probably  corrupt. 

Likewise  the  second  foot  in  the  first-half  alliterating  with  both 
feet  in  the  second-half ;  four  examples  : 

I  I  /  '          _*_ 

nu  se  agend  ^p  araede.  Ex.  295. 

__,_        j_ 
Waeron  ^gypte         £ft  oncyrde.  Ex.  451.    Also  190,  187. 

Two  of  these  examples,  all  of  which  occur  in  Exodus,  might  be 
included  elsewhere. 

§  5.  TRANSVERSE  ALLITERATION.  Very  rarely  we  find  the 
first  foot  in  the  first  half-line  alliterating  with  the  first  foot  in  the 
second  half-line,  while  at  the  same  time  the  second  foot  in  the  first 
half-line  alliterates  with  the  second  foot  in  the  second  half-line ;  as, 

Ge/iyrst  $u  saelida          Awaet  'Sis  folc  s6ge$?  Br.  45. 
on/6r$we"gas  folc  aefter  wolcnum.  Ex.  350. 

There  occurs  also  very  rarely  the  first  foot  of  the  first  half-line 
alliterating  with  the  second  foot  of  the  second  half-line,  and  the 
second  foot  of  the  first  half-line  alliterating  with  the  first  foot  of 
the  second  half;  as, 

.AeTter  $am  w6rdum  we"rod  call  aras.  Ex.  299. 

£Twaet  we/e"or  and  neah         ge/rigen  Mbaft.  Ex.  1. 

Dr.  Frucht,  in  his  dissertation  before  referred  to,  takes  the 
position,  in  opposition  to  Eieger,  that  this  "transverse  alliteration" 
is  not  to  be  considered  as  an  artistic  form,  striven  for  by  the  poet 
himself.  In  support  of  his  view,  he  shows  that  in  1,406  normal 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  33 

lines,  without  double  alliteration  in  the  first  foot,  in  the  three 
poems  which  he  analysed,  there  were  only  64  examples  of  trans- 
verse alliteration  ;  as  there  are  just  1 9  different  alliterating  letters, 
or  groups  of  letters,  he  argues  that  we  must  expect  74  examples 
(1,406  -r-  19),  even  if  this  transverse  alliteration  be  purely  acci- 
dental. This  calculation,  it  seems  to  the  writer,  is  worth  little  in 
showing  how  frequently  transverse  alliteration  may  be  expected 
to  occur.  All  that  it  shows  is  that  in  1,406  alliterating  lines, 
each  alliterative  letter  may  be  expected  to  appear  74  times,  pro- 
vided all  the  alliterating  letters  are  used  with  the  same  degree  of 
frequency.  But  as  there  are  in  both  half-lines  a  number  of  orders 
in  which  a  letter  may  stand  and  yet  alliterate  (he  excludes  only 
one  of  these — double  alliteration  in  the  first  half-line)  his  calcula- 
tion by  no  means  shows  that  in  74  cases  out  of  1,406  the  alliterating 
letter  will  take  in  each  half-line  either  of  the  two  orders  which 
give  transverse  alliteration. 

While  Dr.  Frucht's  argument  is  by  no  means  final  on  the 
subject,  yet  the  rarety  of  the  occurrence  of  the  phenomenon  seems 
to  be  sufficient  to  indicate  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  poet  did  not 
specially  strive  after  it.  Perhaps  it  is  going  too  far  to  say  that 
he  did  not  consciously  perceive  it  as  alliteration.  It  is  more 
probable  that  he  felt  that  to  introduce  a  secondary  alliterating 
letter  into  the  line  would  weaken  the  force  of  the  primary  allitera- 
tion, and  that  the  unity  of  the  half-line  would  be  impaired  by 
connecting  the  separate  feet  of  the  half-lines,  rather  than  the  half- 
lines  themselves,  by  alliteration. 

Summary  of  the  types  of  alliteration  in  the  Wanderer,  Seafarer, 
Exodus,  and  Battle  of  Maldon.  (The  feet  are  numbered  a,  b,  c, 
d,  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence  in  the  normal  line.) 

fa-cl    fa-d)     No 


Wanderer  : 

.a-b-c 
70. 

a-c 
25. 

b-c    a-c-d  a-b-c-d 
14.       1         2 

b-c-d  a-b-d 

a-d 

b-d  jb-aj 

Ib-c/ 

allit. 

*  of  whole  type, 

,  61* 

22* 

12* 

Seafarer  : 

58. 

29. 

12. 

0 

1 

0       2. 

0 

1 

1 

0 

1. 

*  of  type. 

55* 

27* 

11* 

Exodus  : 

295. 

171. 

95. 

2. 

3. 

5.      1. 

1. 

0. 

1 

2 

2. 

*  of  type. 

51* 

30* 

16J* 

Battle  of  Maldon  : 

147. 

69. 

97. 

4. 

2. 

1. 

*  of  type. 

45* 

21* 

30* 

Total, 

570. 

294. 

218. 

7. 

8. 

5.      3. 

1. 

1. 

2. 

2. 

4. 

34  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

No.  lines  in  each  poem  :  Wanderer  115;  Seafarer  106 ;  Exodus 
570  ;  Battle  of  Maldon  323.  Total,  1,114. 

The  above  classification  has  been  made  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples which  the  writer  conceives  to  govern  in  alliteration,  and 
which  have  already  been  stated.  He  has  classed  as  double 
alliteration  all  cases  where  there  are  two  words  in  the  same  half- 
line  with  the  same  initial  sound,  provided  both  are  of  sufficient 
importance  to  receive  either  a  word-accent  or  a  sentence-accent 
without  doing  violence  to  the  meaning.  This  has  led  him  to  class 
as  alliterating,  48  words  in  type  a-b-c,  3  in  type  a-c-d,  and  2  in 
a-b-c-d,  in  the  Wanderer,  Seafarer,  and  Battle  of  Maldon,  which 
are  not  so  marked  in  Sweet's  Anglo-Saxon  Reader — the  text  that 
has  been  largely  used  for  these  three  poems.  The  following  are 
some  examples  (the  additional  alliterating  word  being  printed 
entirely  in  italics) : 

wod  wintercearig  ofer  waftema  geband.    W.  24. 

wdriaft  fta  winsalo,  waldend  licgaft.    W.  78. 

Also  W.  3,  32,  56,  64,  81,  and  105. 

gQcunnod  in  ceole  ce"arselde  fela.    Sea.  5. 

Nap  nihtscua  worSan  sniwde.    Sea.  31. 

Also  Sea.  27,  28,  36,  63,  81,  87,  and  88. 

Megan  to  Mndum  and  /iige  godum.    Br.  4. 

fta  stod  on  staefte,  strSlice  clypode.    Br.  25. 

Also  Br.  11,  14,  23,  43,  59,  66,  89,  90,  etc. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  35 

CHAPTER   IV. 

METRICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NOEMAL  LINE. 

§  1.  SIEVERS'  FUNDAMENTAL  RULES. — Prof.  Sievers,  in  his 
article  on  the  "Rhythm  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Alliterative  Line"  in 
Paul  and  Braune's  Reiirage,  lays  down,  on  pages  220-222,  Vol. 
X,  the  following  "fundamental  rules  for  the  structure  of  the 
second  half-line"  : 

"  1.  The  half-line  consists  of  two  parts,  each  containing  an  arsis. 
For  lack  of  a  better  name,  we  shall  designate  these  parts  as  '  feet.' 

"  2.  Both  of  these  feet  are  either  two-syllable,  or  the  one  is 
one-syllable,  the  other  three-syllable.  A  one-syllable  foot  consists 
merely  of  an  arsis ;  a  two-syllable  foot  consists  of  an  arsis  and  a 
thesis ;  and  a  three-syllable  foot  of  an  arsis  and  a  two-syllable 
thesis,  one  syllable  of  which  has  a  secondary  accent ;  or,  otherwise 
expressed,  of  a  primary  arsis,  a  '  secondary  arsis/ *  and  a  thesis. 

"  3.  From  this  it  follows  that  both  feet  are  not  to  be  considered, 
as  a  matter  of  course,  as  measures  of  equal  time  in  the  sense  of 
the  rhyme-verse.  Equal  duration  of  the  feet  can  be  admitted  in 
general  only  of  those  verses  which  consist  of  two-syllable  feet. 
In  the  case  of  those  formed  after  the  scheme  1  +  3  syllables,  or 
3  +  1,  the  greater  expansion  of  the  one  foot  is  made  compensation 
for  the  shortening  of  the  other. 

"  4.  The  two-syllable  feet  are  either  falling  in  rhythm  (trochaic), 
or  rising  (iambic) ;  the  three-syllable  feet  are  only  falling,  with  a 
secondary  accent  on  the  second  or  third  syllable.  Rising  and  fall- 
ing types  can  be  united  with  one  another  in  interchange  at  pleasure, 
it  being  presumed  that  the  whole  half- verse  will  not  become  longer 
than  four  syllables.  (Compare  No.  2).  Only  in  the  first  do  we 
find  the  half-line  expanded  into  greater  length  (2  +  3  and  3  +  2). 

"5.  The  arsis  consists,  as  a  rule,  of  a  syllable  having  a  primary 
accent ;  more  rarely  of  heavy  suffixes  or  ending  syllables. 

"  The  bearer  of  the  accent  can  be,  in  general,  only  a  long  sylla- 

1  The  objection  to  this  term  has  been  given  on  a  previous  page. 


36  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

ble,  or  the  resolution  of  this  into  £x.  Only  in  the  case  of  two 
accented  syllables  coming  together  (also  in  the  case  of  a  primary 
and  a  secondary  accent)  can  the  second  accented  syllable  be  short- 
ened to  u. 

"  7.  The  theses  are  completed  mostly  through  suffixes  and  end- 
ing syllables ;  also  through  enclitic  and  proclitic  words  ;  but  only 
exceptionally  by  the  members  of  compound  words.  (These,  how- 
ever, must  not  take  a  principal  accent.)  Moreover,  such  compounds 
in  the  thesis,  as  a  rule,  in  turn  exercise  a  marked  influence  on  the 
following  arsis. 

"  8.  The  closing  thesis  of  every  half-line  which  ends  with  a 
thesis,  must  be  monosyllabic.  The  middle  thesis,  in  whatever 
type,  is  mostly  monosyllabic ;  very  often  it  has  two  syllables, 
rarely  more.  The  initial  thesis  of  a  rising  initial  verse  usually 
has  from  one  to  three  syllables,  rarely  more. 

"  9.  Real  anacruses  before  otherwise  completed  rhythmic  lines 
(of  four  or  five  syllables)  appear  only  as  exceptions. " 

As  has  already  been  noted,  we  do  not  follow  Sievers  altogether 
in  the  above  rules,  especially  number  3  and  number  8.  Our  reasons 
for  differing  with  him  in  the  former  case  have  already  been  given,1 
and  it  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  them.  They  are  based  on  our 
conceptions  of  the  requirements  of  all  poetic  rhythm — Anglo-Saxon 
included. 

Prof.  Sievers  has  gone  to  great  lengths  in  his  endeavor  to  restrict 
the  closing  thesis  of  each  half-line  within  the  limits  he  has  set. 
He  has  been  compelled  to  change  grammatical  forms,  to  substitute 
in  many  places  a  conjectural  Anglian  dialect  for  the  West-Saxon, 
to  give  the  same  syllable  a  different  "  quantity "  in  different  con- 
nections, and  sometimes  to  disregard  ordinary  rhythmical  require- 
ments. It  is  doubtful  if  the  results  have  been  worth  the  effort ; 
it  makes  little  difference  in  the  historical  development  of  English 
metre  whether  Sievers'  contention  "that  only  one  syllable  is 
admitted  in  the  closing  thesis  of  a  half-line  "  be  true  or  not.  He 
himself  admits  that  it  is  not  true  of  the  West-Saxon  dialect — 
the  dialect  in  which  the  principal  poems  are  transmitted — and  it 

1  See  p.  14,  ante. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  37 

certainly  is  not  true  of  Modern  English.  If  his  contention  be 
admitted,  the  chief  result  is  only  to  show  that  the  Anglian  dialect 
followed  the  old  Norse  in  limiting  the  closing  thesis  of  the  half- 
line  to  a  single  syllable.  But  the  old  Norse  limited  the  other 
thesis  as  well/  and  why  the  Anglian  dialect  should  follow  it  in 
one  thesis  and  not  in  the  other,  if  the  restriction  is  one  of  so  great 
importance,  has  not  as  yet  been  made  very  clear.  On  the  other 
hand  the  Saxon,  and  the  Old  High  German  generally,  as  Prof. 
Sievers  himself  has  shown  in  the  same  article,  observed  no  such 
limitation,  but  used  two-syllable  closing  theses  with  perfect  free- 
dom. 

Above  all,  it  seems  to  us  that  there  are  many  cases  in  which  the 
requirements  of  the  rhythm  demand  that  we  admit  a  type  with 
two  syllables  in  the  closing  thesis.  We  give  some  examples  from 
the  early  poems,  the  Wanderer,  Seafarer,  Exodus,  and  Beowulf 
(the  whole  line  is  quoted  in  each  case)  :  — 

wmtra  dael  in  woruld-rice  TFita  sceal  geSyldig.    W.  65. 

£    x        x      x    I   6x         xx  ||  £  x      x      x  |  £     x    || 

TForiaS  $a  winsalo  waldend  licgaS.    W.  78. 


and  graedig  (/ielleS  anfloga.    Sea.  62. 


'Or 

^  x     x  |      .£    x  ||  .£    x  I  ^    x    x    || 

edlle  onmedlan  eorSan  rices.    Sea.  81. 

^  x  |   £     x      x  ||  ^      x      .£    x  || 
/ 

ftaet  ge  gewurSien  wuldres  aldor.    Ex.  270. 

wraetlicu  waegfara  o"S  i^olcna  hrof.    Ex.  298. 

Mlige  Aeahtreowe  swa  h&eleft  gefrunon.    Ex.  388. 

—  XX     I        —             XXI  X             L/X                   X       wX 

nu  us  ioceras  Veteran  secga^.    Ex.  530. 

-xl-xxll  ^xl^xll 

JSee  Supplement  II  of  Part  II,  (pp.  520,  et  seq.)  of  Sievers'  article  already 
referred  to,  in  Paul  and  Braune's  JBeitrdge,  Vol.  X. 


38  On  Anglo-Saxon   Versification. 

word  waeron  wynsume.  Eode  TPealhSeow  forS.    Beo.  613. 

L  x  x    |      £    x    x    ||  xx  4  I    x        .£     |] 

/yrd-searu  /uslicu  hine  /yrwyt  braec.    Beo.  232. 

L        x     x    |   .£  x  x  ||  x  x      ^    I      x       u     || 

Beowulf  maftelode  on  him  iyrne  scan.    Beo.  405. 

±      x     \     6x   x  x    \\  x         x        £    I   x       £     || 

/Sorh  is  me  to  s^cganne  on  sefan  mmum.    Beo.  473. 

L        x     x    x   |   .£    x    x    ||  x         6x  ^    x     || 

Jtfynte  se  wanscaSa  manna  cynnes.    Beo.  713. 

£    x     x   |     £     x    x  ||  £     X  I  £     X  jj 

Sean  hie  hira  ieag-gyfan  6anan  folgedon.    Beo.  1103. 

L       xxx|^l        xx  ||  u 

A  great  many  similar  examples  might  be  quoted,  but  the  above 
are  sufficient.  In  the  Wanderer,  Seafarer,  and  Exodus  alone 
there  are  at  least  101  half-lines  in  which  the  rhythm  seems  to 
demand  that  they  be  classed  under  type  A,  with  two  syllables  in 
the  closing  thesis.  Of  these,  88  are  in  the  first  half-line,  and  only 
13  in  the  second.  This  proportion  indicates  what  is  true  gener- 
ally :  the  two-syllable  closing  thesis  is  very  rare  in  the  second 
half-line. 

We  have  cited  no  examples  from  the  Battle  of  Maldon,  inas- 
much as  Prof.  Sievers  admits  the  occurrence  of  two-syllable  closing 
theses  in  the  later  poems.  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  con- 
nection, however,  that  of  the  646  half-lines  in  the  Battle  of  Maldon, 
we  have  classed  only  35  under  this  type,  making  about  5J  ^  ; 
while  of  the  1582  half-lines  of  the  other  three  poems,  there  are 
101  under  this  type,  making  7  ^ — showing  thus  a  greater  pro- 
portion under  the  earlier  poems. 

Whether  we  have  examples  of  two-syllables  in  the  closing  thesis 
under  C,  is  a  doubtful  question.  If  they  really  occur,  they  must 
be,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  rhythm  of  C,  light  and  easily 
enunciated.  They  must  be  such  that  they  can  be  given  in  con- 
nection with  the  preceding  arsis  in  the  time  of  a  normal  arsis ; 
otherwise  they  will  change  the  character  of  the  rhythm  from  the 
ascending  to  the  descending,  and  so  change-  entirely  the  nature  of 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  39 

the  type.     The  following  are  examples  that  might  possibly  be 
classed  under  type  C  : 

Ic  S6  Sancige.  Br.  173.  to  on  IdciaS.  Ex.  278. 

x   .£   |  £    x  x  ||  x     u   I  .£  x  x  || 

for  Son  wat  se  Se  sceall.  W.  37.         ne  syn  godes  Seodscipes.  Ex.  528. 
xx      -  |  -         xxll  xx       &  I     -      x  x  II 

Sonne  hi  maest  mid  him.  Sea.  84.     a  maeg  gnornian.  Br.  315. 
xx^j^  xx    ||  x        u   I        ^xx|| 

ac  hi  faestlice,  Br.  82. 

X        L    |    L       X   X   || 

Se  Saer  baldlicost.  Br.  78. 

x    L  |     L     x  x  || 

By  using  anacrusis,  these  and  similar  examples  would  fall  under 
type  D ;  and  perhaps  the  argument  as  a  whole  is  in  favor  of  plac- 
ing them  there,  although  anacrusis  is  to  be  avoided,  unless  distinctly 
demanded  by  the  rhythm. 

§  2.  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  NORMAL  LINE.  (1)  Every  com- 
plete normal  line  is  composed  of  two  half-lines.  These  are,  in 
general,  of  equal  length — or  time — though  this  period  of  time 
may  be  occupied  by  a  different  number  of  sounds  (or  pauses)  in 
each  half-line.  The  division  between  the  two  half-lines  is  marked 
by  a  caesural  pause,  which  falls  uniformly  in  the  metrical  center 
of  the  line.  It  must  not  separate  the  syllables  of  a  word,  nor,  as 
a  rule,  words  joined  in  very  close  syntactical  relation ;  and  it 
regularly  coincides  with  a  logical  pause. 

(2).  Each  half-line  of  every  normal  line  contains  two,  and  only 
two,  feet  or  measures.  Each  foot  must  contain  one,  and  only  one, 
primary  rhythmical-accent.  The  part  of  the  foot  which  takes  the 
rhythmical-accent  is  called  the  arsis.  Feet  usually  consist  of  an 
arsis  and  an  unaccented  syllable,  or  syllables,  called  the  thesis. 
The  thesis  can  not  take  a  rhythmical-accent.  There  are  feet  which 
consist  of  an  arsis  only. 

(3).  The  feet  in  the  same  half-line  are  approximately  equal  in 
length  in  recitation,  although  they  may  (and  usually  do)  consist  of 
an  unequal  number  of  sounds.  The  possible  number  of  sounds  in 


40  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

a  single  foot  may  range  (under  definite  limitations)  from  one  to  six. 
In  the  case  of  the  greater  number  of  syllables,  it  is  essential  that 
they  be  light,  unemphatic,  and  easily  enunciated ;  otherwise  the 
verse  will  have  a  heavy  dragging  effect.  If  a  foot  consists  of  an 
arsis  alone,  the  lack  of  a  thesis  is  supplied  by  a  pause.  The  other 
foot  then  in  the  half-line  will  regularly  contain  a  thesis  of  two  sylla- 
bles, one  of  which  usually  has  a  secondary  pronunciation-accent. 

(4).  A  foot  is  classed  as  an  ascending  rhythm,  or  as  a  descend- 
ing rhythm,  accordingly  as  the  unaccented  or  the  accented  part 
comes  first.  The  ascending  rhythms  correspond  to  the  iambic  and 
anapaestic  rhythms  in  Modern  English,  while  the  descending  cor- 
respond to  the  trochaic  and  dactylic.  Feet  of  the  descending  rhythm 
are  much  the  more  numerous  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry. 

(5).  The  arsis,  or  accented  part  of  a  foot,  usually  consists  of  the 
most  important  syllable  of  an  important  word  in  the  sentence.  It 
always  has  a  rhythmical-accent,  and  regularly  takes  besides,  either 
a  word-accent,  or  a  sentence-accent,  or  both.  The  syllable  which 
constitutes  the  arsis  is  usually  the  important  syllable  of  a  noun,  or 
adjective,  or  verb ;  but  it  may  be  an  adverb,  a  preposition,  or  a 
conjunction,  if  this  have  a  sentence-accent. 

(6).  The  arsis  is  usually  long  in  quantity.  Even  where  not 
long  in  the  classic  sense,  the  sentence-accent  or  pronunciation- 
accent  falling  on  it  may  cause  it  to  be  held  longer  in  enunciation 
than  the  so-called  "  long  "  syllable  (according  to  classic  rules)  in 
an  adjoining  thesis.  When  the  syllable  immediately  preceding 
has  an  accent — either  a  rhythmical-accent  (as  in  type  C),  or  a 
secondary  word-accent  (as  in  heavy  compounds),  the  syllable  con- 
stituting the  arsis  in  the  second  foot  is  frequently  a  light  or 
"  short "  syllable,  even  in  the  classic  sense.  This  is  doubtless  to 
compensate  for  the  previous  heavy  syllable,  the  short  syllable 
being  more  easily  enunciated  in  that  connection  than  another  long 
one  would  be.  Sometimes  instead  of  a  single  long  syllable  con- 
stituting the  arsis,  it  consists  of  two  short  or  light  syllables.  This 
is  called  the  "  resolution  of  the  arsis."  The  first  of  these  syllables 
takes  the  stress  of  the  accent,  and  the  second  is  joined  to  it  as  an 
enclitic.  Both  together  are  pronounced  in  the  time  of  a  normal  arsis. 

(7).    The  thesis  normally  consists  entirely  of  unaccented  sylla- 


On  Anglo-Saxon   Versification.  41 

bles — one  or  more.  The  usual  number  is  from  one  to  three ; 
theses  of  a  greater  number  of  syllables  than  three  are  rare.  The 
number  of  syllables  which  the  thesis  of  a  foot  may  have  is 
restricted  to  some  extent  by  the  verse-type  to  which  the  foot 
belongs.  In  type  A,  the  closing  thesis  of  the  half-line  is  not  per- 
mitted more  than  two  syllables ;  the  closing  thesis  of  C  rarely,  if 
ever,  has  more  than  one.  Theses  beginning  a  verse  type  have  a 
greater  fondness  than  any  others  for  many  syllables.  The  sylla- 
bles of  the  thesis  are  not  necessarily  "  short "  in  the  classical 
sense ;  they  may  be  "  long "  as  well.  The  chief  requirement  is 
that  they  do  not  take  a  sentence  accent,  or  a  metrical  accent.  In 
types  D  and  E,  one  of  the  syllables  of  the  thesis  regularly  takes  a 
secondary  word-accent — the  accent  belonging  to  the  second  part 
of  a  compound  word ;  but  this  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  a  rhythmical-accent. 

(8).  The  first  arsis  in  the  second  half-line,  is  always  the  first 
word  that  alliterates  in  that  half-line,  and  every  alliterating  word 
in  either  half-line  represents  an  arsis.  Only  words  that  are 
important  in  the  line — words  that  take  a  sentence-accent,  or  a 
word-accent,  or  both — can  be  considered  as  alliterating. 

(9).  Anacrusis  may  occur  with  any  half-line  that  commences 
with  a  descending  measure.  It  performs  no  rhythmical  function, 
however,  and  it  is  to  be  avoided  wherever  possible  in  analysing 
the  metrical  structure. 

§  3.  SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  STUDENT  IN  ANALYSING  THE 
NORMAL,  LINE. 

1.  Fix  the  arses  by  means  of  the  alliterating  words  (beginning 
with  the  second  half-line),  the  sentence-accents,  and  the  word- 
accents. 

2.  Be  guided  by  the  ordinary  principles  of  rhythm  in  classify- 
ing the  types. 

3.  Prefer  simple  and  regular  types ;  repeat  when  possible  types 
that  have  occurred  in  neighboring  lines. 

4.  Emphasize  the  thought  by  means  of  the  verse  type ;  do  not 
sacrifice  sense  to  sound ;  let  the  thought  determine  the  sentence 
accent. 

5.  Avoid  anacruses,  unless  actually  necessary. 


42  On  Anglo-Saxon   Versification. 

6.  Represent  as  syllables  in  the  verse  type  the  consonants,  /,  n, 
and  r,  in  all  words  in  which  they  are  pronounced  as  separate  syllables. 

7.  Remember  that  Anglo-Saxon  versification  is  "accentual," 
and  that  quantity  here  has  the  same  definition  as  in  Modern  Eng- 
lish, rather  than  that  of  Latin  or  Greek. 


CHAPTER   V. 

THE  ANGLO-SAXON  LONG  LINE,  OR  HEXAMETER. 

§  1.  OCCURRENCE.  In  addition  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  normal 
line  of  four  feet,  there  are  met  with  in  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  between 
four  and  five  hundred  long  lines,  or  "  expanded  lines,"  containing 
six  feet  each.  These  long  lines  are  very  generally  distributed 
throughout  the  poetry ;  the  principal  poems  which  do  not  contain 
any,  are  the  Juliana,  the  Battle  of  Maldon,  and  the  West-Saxon 
translation  of  the  Psalms.  They  occur  most  commonly  in  groups, 
but  are  also  found  now  and  then  occurring  singly  in  the  midst  of 
normal  lines.  Likewise  single  normal  lines  are  sometimes  found 
in  a  group  of  long  lines.  Whether  a  normal  half-line  and  a  long 
half-line  can  be  united  into  a  whole  line,  is  still  an  unsettled  ques- 
tion.1 The  requirements  of  the  rhythm  would  argue  against  it. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  between  a  long  line  and 
a  normal  line  with  anacrusis,  or  with  an  expanded  thesis.  Espe- 
cially is  this  the  case  where  the  long  line  occurs  isolated  in  the 
midst  of  short  lines.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  treat  such  lines  is 
to  make  them  conform  to  the  metrical  types  of  the  surrounding 
lines,  if  it  can  be  done  without  violence  to  rhythmical  principles. 
It  is  not  probable  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  poet,  more  than  the 
Modern  English  poet,  would  change  the  character  of  the  rhythm 
for  a  single  line  only,  without  a  good  reason.  The  "  rhythmic 
impulse,"  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  thought,  should  be  care- 

^chipper  in  his  "Englische  Metrik"  (page  48),  takes  the  position  that  they 
can,  but  the  examples  he  cites  are  hardly  conclusive. 


On  Anglo-Saxon   Versification.  43 

fully  considered  in  classifying  such  lines.  As  a  rule  the  long  lines 
are  used  where  a  stately,  majestic  movement  seems  to  be  demanded. 
§  2.  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  LONG  LINE  AND  NORMAL  LINE. 
The  chief  formal  difference  between  the  long  line  and  the  normal 
line  is  the  difference  in  the  number  of  feet  ;  the  normal  line  con- 
tains four,  the  long  line  six  feet.  But  the  rhythmical  difference 
is  much  more  considerable  than  would  be  indicated  by  this.  In 
the  rhythm  of  most  of  the  long  lines,  we  have  something  altogether 
different  from  that  of  the  normal  line.  We  have  a  rhythm  which, 
in  some  cases  at  least,  approaches  very  nearly  our  Modern  Eng- 
lish dactylic  hexameter  —  especially  where  the  caesura  falls  in  the 
middle  of  the  line.  This  will  be  perceived  from  a  comparison  of 
the  following  lines  :  — 

$m  ofer  fteoda  gehwylce  Eal  Su  hit  getSyldum  healdest. 

£xx|.£xx|^x||  £x        xx|^x|       ^    x  || 

Travelingthe  vale  with  mine  eyes  green  meadows  and  lake  with  green  island 
^       x      x  |  .£        x        x       .£  x  L   x        **.      L         x        x  I  .£  x  || 

mae*gen  mid  modes  snyttrum.     Ic  Se  sceal  mine  gelaestan. 


£   X 


Dark  in  its  basin  of  rock  and  the  bare  stream  flowing  in  brightness 

L        x     x   |  .£  x    x  |  .£  xx|^  x       \  L      *    x  \     L       x|| 

j_  I  I 

freode  swawit  fiirSum  spraecen   $u  scealt  to  frofre  weorSan. 
£xxx|-x         (Sx||^xx^x|^x||  Beo.  1706-08 

Thrilled  with  beauty  and  love     in  the  wooded  slope  of  the  mountain. 
L  x|^xx|^  xx|.£x'|^        xx|.£        x  || 

—  Campbell. 

We  think  it  will  be  evident  to  anyone  who  reads  these  lines 
rhythmically,  that  there  is  a  similarity  in  the  largeness  and  sweep 
of  the  rhythm  in  each  case  that  is  very  striking.  But  while  these 
rhythms  are  very  like  each  other,  they  are  both  very  different 
from  the  Latin  and  Greek  dactylic  hexameter. 

§  3.  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LONG  LINE.  There  are  two 
theories  of  the  structure  of  the  long  line.  Prof.  Sievers  suggests 
that  it  consists  of  an  ordinary  type  with  L  x  .  .  .  .  l  or  .  .  .  .  x  L  , 
prefixed.  On  the  other  hand,  K.  Luick  (in  Paul  and  Braune's 

1  The  dots  indicate  the  number  of  additional  short  syllables  that  may  occur. 


44  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

Beitrage,  Vol.  XIII)  proposes  the  theory  that  it  is  the  result  of 
the  moulding  together  of  two  ordinary  types — that  before  the 
first  type  is  regularly  completed,  there  is  added  to  it  one  of  the 
five  regular  types.  The  latter  view  is  rather  the  more  probable, 
and  as  it  explains  very  well  all  the  phenomena,  and  gives  an 
intelligible  basis  for  naming  the  types  of  the  long  lines,  we  have 
adopted  it  here. 

§  4.  ALLJTEKATION  IN  THE  LONG  LINE.  Alliteration  is 
more  abundant  in  the  long  line  than  in  the  normal  line.  Two 
alliterating  words  in  the  first  half-line  are  the  rule,  and  sometimes 
we  find  even  three  ;  as, 

#uman  to  iSam  </yldnan  #ylde     ~$e  he  him  to  #6de  geteod.  Dan.  204. 

/iwe"orfon  $a  Aae*$enan  Meftas     fram  "Sam  Mlgan  cnihton.  Dan.  267. 
With  double  alliteration  in  the  first  half-line,  it  usually  falls  on 
the  first  and  second  arses ;  as, 

/rofre  to  JPaeder  on  he*ofonum     ftaer  us  call  seo/aestnung  stondaft. 

W.  115. 
Earely  the  second  and  third  arses  have  the  alliteration ;  as, 

waeron  hyra  raedas  rice        simian  hie  r6dera  waldend.    Dan.  457. 
There  are  possibly  examples  of  alliteration  on  the  first  and 
third  arses,  if  we  include  as  long  lines  such  as  the  following  from 
the '"  Rhyme  Poem  "  :  — 

Dreamas  swa  her  gedreosaiS     dryhtscype  gehreosaft.    Reiml.  55. 

Hf  her  me"n  forftjosaft  feahtras  6ft  geceosaft.    Reiml.  56. 

Such  lines,  however,  can  perhaps  be  better  analysed  as  normal 
lines  with  expanded  theses ;  the  connection  and  the  thought  do 
not  suggest  the  majestic  movement  of  the  long  line. 

There  are  rare  examples  of  single  alliteration  in  the  first  half- 
line  ;  in  this  case  the  alliteration  usually  falls  on  the  second  arsis ;  as, 

i  i  ^  i_        i 

%e  me  swa  leoht  oftywde         and  mine  leode  gen£rede.    El.  163. 

In  the  second  half-line  single  alliteration  is  the  rule,  and  that 
falls  regularly  upon  the  second  arsis ;  as, 

br<5  se  $e  eaftmod  Ie"ofai5     cy me$  him  seo  dr  of  h^ofonum. 

Sea.  107. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  45 

There  are  two  exceptions,  with  alliteration  on  the  first  arsis, 
in  the  second  half-line  in  Gn.  Exodus ;  as, 

sty  ran  sceal  mon  sfrongum  mode      storm,  of  holm  gebringe'S. 

Gn.  Ex.  51. 

Rarely  we  have  double  alliteration  in  the  second  half-line,  which 
falls  then  either  on  the  first  and  second  arses ;  as, 

$wa  cwaeft  snottor  on  mode    gesaet  him  sundor  aet  rune.  W.  111. 

wuldorcyninges  word  geweotan  iSa  iSa  witigan  iSry.   And.  801, 

or  on  the  second  and  third  arses ;  as, 

naes  him  sweg  to  sorge         $on  ma  fte  sunnan  scima.    Dan.  264. 

§  5.  THE  TYPES.  As  already  remarked,  the  types  of  the 
long  lines  can  best  be  explained  as  resulting  from  the  merging 
together  of  two  normal  types — the  second  type  (minus  an  initial 
thesis  in  B  and  C)  following  immediately  after  the  first  foot  of  the 
first  type.  In  the  long  lines  transmitted  to  us,  the  following  types 
are  represented : — 

l_Type  A-A.1    -x....  |  ^  x  .  |-x|| 
feorh  of  feonda  dome.    Ex.  570-a. 

L         x   |     L      x   |     L  x  || 

$aer  $u  ftolades  si&San.    Cr.  1410-b. 

L         x   |     ujj      x    I   L       x  || 

2_Type  A-B.    L  x  .  .  .  |  L  \  x  L  \\ 

waesce^  his  warig  hr%l.     Gn.  Ex.  99. 

L         x        x    |     L    |    x       dx   || 

3_Type  A-C.    *  (  .  .  .  x  L  \  L  x  || 

wlitige  to  woruldnytte.    Gen.  1016. 


^      xxx 


4_Type  A-D.     -  x  .  .  |  -   |  ^ 


bSalde  byrnwigg^nde.    Jud.  338. 


£.Xl£.\£.±X 


1  The  dots  in  the  metrical  scheme  represent  the  highest  number  of  additional 
syllables  that  occur  in  the  thesis. 


46  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

5—  Type  A-E. 

sweord  and  swatigne  helm.    Jud.  338. 


x  L±  x        L 


6—  Type  B-A.    x-x...|-x.|-x|| 
alaetan  liges  ganga.    Dan.  263. 

x  :£  x   |      ^  x   I  i    x     || 

This  type  is  thus  given  by  Sievers.  The  requirements  of  the 
rhythm  would  rather  class  such  examples  under  type  A-A.  with 
anacrusis. 

7_Type  B-B.    .x-|...x-|.x-|| 

~3a  gewat  se  6ngel  up.    Dan.  441. 

x     x    ^  I  x  ^  I  x    i    || 

8_Type  B-C.   ..x-|...x-|-x|| 

and  nahte  ^aldfeondum.    Dan.  454. 


x  L       L  ±  X 


9—Type  B-D.    .  x  L 

on  eorSan  tinswaeslicne.    Jud.  65. 

x     L\      x    .£  I       L      i    x  || 

This  is  according  to  Sievers7  classification.  But  the  rhythmic 
requirements  would  be  met  better,  by  treating  these  examples 
with  anacrusis,  and  classing  them  under  A-D. 

10— Type  B-E.    x-...|-ix|.-|| 

ne  fte'arf  he  $y  Sdleane  gefeon.    Gen.  1523. 

Here  again  we  have  followed  Sievers ;  but  the  rhythm  rather 
demands  that  we  treat  the  half-line  with  anacrusis  (the  first  syl- 
lable is  always  short  and  unimportant  anyway)  and  class  the 
examples  under  A-E. 

H_Type  C-A.    x  L  |  L  x  .  |  -  x  || 

geseo^  sorga  maeste.    Cr.  1209. 


X    L   \      L  x 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  47 

12—  Type  C-C  .....  x  L  \  L  6  x  || 

ne  se  bryne  beotmaecgum.    Dan.  265. 


L        L      x 

x  x  L     L     L 


13—  Type  C-D. 

$a  he  Syder  folc  samnode.    Dan.  228-b. 

X        x         dx      I      L    I      L   0  x       || 

14—  Type  C-E. 


L  -  x     L 


forSon  waerlogona  sint.   Gen.  2409-b. 

X     6    |         L        ux    X    |    L     || 

In  the  above  types  we  have  given  only  the  normal  —  or  at  least 
the  simplest  —  form.  In  each  case  occur  the  various  modifications 
that  were  met  with  in  the  discussion  of  the  types  of  the  normal 
line  :  anacrusis,  the  resolution  of  the  arses,  increased  number  of 
syllables  in  the  thesis,  etc.  The  last-mentioned  variation  attains 
its  maximum  in  the  type  A-  A,  where  occur  as  many  as  five  syl- 
lables in  the  thesis  ;  as,  — 

d6l  br3  se  i$e  him  his  dryhten  ne  ondraedeft.  Sea.  106-a. 

uxxxx         x|^xxx|^x|| 

Of  the  types  given  above,  A-  A  is  by  far  the  most  common. 
Prof.  Sievers,  in  his  "  Altgermanische  Metrik,"  gives  the  follow- 
ing figures  for  a  total  of  848  half-lines  analysed  :  A-A  (all  forms) 
565.1  A-B,  31.  A-C,  26.  A-D,  12.  A-E,  20.  B-A,  121.  B-B,  9. 
B-C,  8.  B-D,  16.  B-E,  3.  C-A,  15.  C-C,  9.  C-D,  2.  (?),  C-E,  1.  (?). 

The  fact  that  so  nearly  all  of  the  examples  belong  to  type  A-A, 
may  have  suggested  to  Prof.  Sievers  the  theory  that  the  long  line 
is  formed  by  prefixing  L  x  .  .  .  .  ,  to  the  normal  types. 

§  6.  LINES  LONGER  THAN  six  FEET.  Prof.  Sievers  thinks 
that  we  have  perhaps  a  few  lines  of  eight  feet  —  or  at  least,  half- 
lines  of  four  feet  ;  as,  — 

6alle  him  brim  blodige  -Suhton.    Ex.  572. 

^x      x|       C|        £xx|^x|| 

e"ngel  in  $one  ofn  innan  becwom.  Dan.  238. 


1  Were  B-A  classed  here  (  with  anacrusis)  as  the  rhythm  seems  to  require,  this 
number  would  be  increased  to  686,  leaving  only  162  examples  of  all  other  types. 


48  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

beheoldon  $aet  6nglas  dryhtnes  ealle.  Cr.  9. 
x  :   .£     x        x  |  .£   x  4  x  -j  -.  £  x  || 

He  also  suggests  that  some  of  the  longer  half-lines  classed  by 
him  among  the  half-lines  containing  but  three  feet,  should  possibly 
be  included  here  instead.  However,  since  these  examples  are  so 
rare,  and  inasmuch  as  they  can  all  (by  means  of  anacrusis  or 
expanded  thesis)  be  scanned  as  ordinary  long  lines,  it  seems  to  us 
unnecessary  to  make  another  class.  Besides,  in  every  case  cited, 
the  other  half-line  with  which  each  example  is  connected  has  only 
three  feet;  and  the  rhythmic  requirements  would  argue  against 
making  here  a  half-line  of  four  feet  complete  one  of  three.  We 
certainly  have  no  more  reason  (if  as  much)  for  supposing  that  the 
poet  would  thus  destroy  the  balance  of  the  rhythm  of  his  long 
line,  sooner  than  he  would  in  the  case  of  the  normal  line,  by 
uniting  a  three  foot  half-line  with  a  two  foot  half-line.  Both  are 
rhythmic  improbabilities,  and  can  be  admitted  only  on  unmis- 
takable proof. 


BOOK   II.—  PART   II. 

METRICAL    ANALYSIS 

OF  THE  WANDERER,  SEAFARER,  EXODUS,  AND  BATTLE  OF 
MALDON  (DEATH  OF  BYRHTNO^). 


PREFACE. 

We  have  selected  these  four  poems  for  analysis  for  several 
reasons.  In  the  first  place,  chronologically  they  cover  nearly  the 
whole  Anglo-Saxon  poetic  period.  The  Exodus  is  attributed  by 
Stopford  Brooke l  to  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  century  or  the 
first  part  of  the  eighth ;  Wiilker  thinks  that  the  Wanderer  and 
the  Seafarer  were  written  in  the  ninth  (Brooke  puts  them  in  the 
first  quarter  of  the  eighth)  ;  while  the  date  of  the  Battle  of  Mai- 
don  is  fixed  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  itself  in  the  last  decade 
of  the  tenth.  The  Parker  manuscript  gives  the  date  of  the  battle 
as  993  ;  the  Laud  manuscript,  and  the  Canterbury  manuscript, 
(in  the  Cottonian  collection),  give  it  as  991.  The  poem  was 
written  by  an  eye-witness,  and  in  all  probability  immediately  after 
the  battle,  inasmuch  as  the  poet  does  not  seem  to  have  yet  learned 
the  names  of  any  of  the  enemy,  even  the  names  of  their  leaders. 

Another  reason  for  selecting  these  poems  for  analysis  is  that  the 
three  shorter  ones — the  Wanderer,  the  Seafarer,  and  the  Battle  of 
Maldon — are  found  in  most  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  readers,  and  the 
student  who  wishes  can  verify  the  results  for  himself  from  his  own 
text.  It  will  at  least  acquaint  him  with  the  scientific  method  in 
the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon  prosody. 

A  third  reason  for  this  selection  is  that  the  more  important 
poems  have  already  been  analyzed  by  Sievers,  Frucht,  Cremer, 
and  others ;  and  as  the  principles  upon  which  the  present  analysis 
is  made  differ  very  little  in  essential  particulars  from  the  theories 

1In  his  "  English  Literature  from  the  beginning  to  the  Norman  Conquest." 

49 


50  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

maintained  by  them,  a  repetition  of  their  work  would  be  super- 
fluous. Sievers  has  analyzed  the  Beowulf,  Frucht  the  Elene, 
Juliana  and  Christ,  and  Cremer  the  Andreas,  GuSlac,  and  Phoe- 
nix, and  also  those  analyzed  by  Frucht.  The  summary  of  their 
results  is  given  in  brief  in  the  table  on  page  20,  of  Book  II, 
Part  I. 

The  texts  used  in  this  discussion  are  Grein-Wiilker's  "  Biblio- 
thek  der  Angelsachsischen  Poesie"  and  Sweet's  "Anglo-Saxon 
Reader " ;  the  latter  has  been  chiefly  used  in  the  study  of  the 
Wanderer,  the  Seafarer,  and  the  Battle  of  Maldon.  Prof.  Sweet's 
emendations  have,  as  a  rule,  been  accepted ;  very  few  additional 
ones  have  been  attempted.  It  is  a  practice  so  easily  carried  too 
far  (witness  the  efforts  of  the  German  metrists  along  this  line)  that 
it  seemed  preferable  to  fit  the  metrical  scheme  to  the  poetry  as  it 
has  been  transmitted,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  mould  the  poetry 
to  fit  some  pre-conceived  metrical  theory.  By  giving  the  vowel 
of  a  word  a  different  quantity  when  that  same  word  appears  in 
different  connections,  or  by  expanding  or  contracting  inflection 
endings  at  will,  it  might  be  possible  to  derive  a  very  pretty  theo- 
retical scheme,  but  wherein  such  a  scheme  would  be  of  much  prac- 
tical utility  in  studying  Anglo-Saxon  poetry  as  we  have  it,  does 
not  appear. 

The  few  emendations  suggested  have  all  been  noted  at  the  close 
of  the  analysis ;  they  are  only  such  as  were  obviously  demanded, 
and  where  the  substitution  of  the  emended  form  would  avoid  an 
unusual  variation  of  the  rhythmical  type. 

The  abbreviations  used  here  are  the  same  as  those  used  in  Part 
I ;  that  is,  W.  for  the  Wanderer,  Sea.  for  the  Seafarer,  Ex.  for 
Exodus,  and  Br.  for  the  Battle  of  Maldon. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  51 

CHAPTER   I. 

METKICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NORMAL  LINES. 

§  1.  TYPE  A.  Fundamental  type  :  L  x  |  L  x  ||  .  This  type 
occurs  much  the  most  frequently  of  all  of  the  five.  Of  the  nearly 
2200  half-lines  contained  in  these  four  poems,  no  fewer  than 
1150 — more  than  half — are  of  this  type.  The  type  is  very  evenly 
distributed  between  the  two  half-lines;  the  first  half  has  586 
examples,  the  second  566. 

I.     The  normal  type :  one  syllable  in  each  thesis  :  L  x  |  ^  x  ||  . 

a.1  b. 

wlonc  bi  wealle.  W.  80.  fae"grost  limped.  Sea.  13. 

6nwist  e^les.  Ex.  18.  leofne  fleogan.  Br.  7. 

Also  W.  90,  103,  104;  sum  4.     W.  3,  10,  13,  18,  19,  etc. ;  sum 

28. 

Sea  3,  10,  11,  25,  etc.  ;  sum  13.     Sea.  15,  26,  30,  31,  etc. ;  sum  20. 
Ex.  22,  26,  41,  42,  etc. ;  sum  75.     Ex.  2,  5,  12,  13,  23,  etc. ;  sum 

157. 
Br.  3, 13, 15, 18, 54,  etc.;  sum  22.     Br.  7,  14,  16,  18,  etc. ;  sum  86. 

(a)    with  one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  L  x  |  L  x  ||  . 
a.  b. 

ftaet  he  gewyrce.  Sea.  74.  ne  sar  gefelan.  Sea.  95. 

alyfed  IjlSsrS.  Ex.  44.  $aes  folces  ealdor.  Br.  202. 

Also   Sea.   96.   Ex.   421,   434,     Ex.  212,  238,  547. 
442,    528,    560,    294,    207, 
363.  Br.  37,  226,  234. 

(6)    with  two-syllable  anacrusis  :xx:^x|^x||. 
a.  b. 

swa  nu  missenlice.  W.  75.  sr&San   grame  wtirdon.    Ex. 

144. 
Also  Ex.  151,  239,  325.  Ex.  259,  383. 

1  "a"  indicates  the  first  half-line,  "b"  the  second. 


52  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

(c)    with  three-syllable  anacrusis  :  xxx:^x|^x||. 

a.  b. 

/    ^  i 

ne  ymbe  owiht  e~lles.    Sea.  46.        ^a  hie  oiSlaeded   haefdon.   Ex. 

569. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  0  x  |  4  x  || , 

a.    ,  b. 

M&udes  miltse.  W.  2.  ganetes  hleo^or.    Sea.  20. 

haeleftum  s6cgan.  Ex.  7.  daroi$  of  handa.    Br.  149. 

Also  W.  12.  Sea.  13,  51,  63,  W.  21,  39.  Sea.  63.  Ex.  8,  16, 
75,  92.  Ex.  92,  204,  258,  46,  31,  97,  102,  etc. ;  sum  24. 
etc.;sumll.  Br.  94, 120,  126,  Br.  79,  85,  100,  106,  219, 
201,  214,  etc. ;  sum  9.  etc. ;  sum  12. 

(a)  one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x:  <&  x  |  L  x  ||  . 

a.  b. 

ftaet  ic  waes  on  Myrcon.    Br.  217. 

(b)  two  syllable  anacrusis  :  x  x  :  39  x  j  £  x  || . 

a.  b. 

Nalles  hige  gehyrdon.    Ex.  307. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  ^  x  |  6$  x. 

a.  b. 

winter  wtinade.    Sea.  15.  lebfre  duguiSe.    W.  97. 

horse  and  hr^er-gleaw.  Ex.  13.     be\3rmas  trymian.    Br.  17. 

Also  Sea.  24,  80.  Ex.  78,  158,  Ex.  61,  146,  183,  209,  228, 
etc. ;  sum  15.  etc. ;  sum  12.  Br.  70,  205, 

305. 

(a)    one  syllable  anacrusis  :  x:  L  x  |  u^  x  ||  . 

j 

"Saet  waeron  cyningas.    Ex.  185. 

(3).    Resolution  of  both  arses  :  &  x  |  &  x  || . 
yfeles  h6gode.     Br.  133.     Also  Ex.  416. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  53 

(4).    The  first  arsis  is  short :  £  x  |  L  x  || 

ftaet  from  Noe.  Ex.  378.  daeg  waes  maere.  Ex.  47.  Also 

166,  82,  286,  555. 
(5).    The  second  arsis  is  short :  L  x  |  6  x  || 

softfaest  cyning.  Ex.  9.  fe*alwe  we"gas.  W.  46.    maegburh 

Also  Ex.  149,  282,  445.  heora.    Ex.  55.    Also  W.  58. 

Sea.  1.  Ex.  236,  263, 358,  etc. ; 

sum  9. 

SUMMARY. 

a.  b. 

Wanderer,  7.  33. 

Seafarer,  24.  24. 

Exodus,  120.  215. 

B.  of  M.,  35.  104. 

Total:      186.  Total:      376. 

Total  in  whole  line,  562.    • 

As  the  above  summary  shows,  this  is  the  most  common  form  of 
type  A,  and  it  occurs  much  more  frequently  in  "  b  "  than  in  "  a" ; 
in  Exodus  nearly  twice  as  often ;  in  the  Battle  of  Maldon  three 
times,  and  in  the  Wanderer  nearly  five  times,  as  often.  About 
25  of  the  above  examples  might  possibly  be  included  elsewhere  ; 
this  would,  of  course,  depend  upon  a  difference  in  interpretation, 
necessitating  a  change  in  the  sentence-accent. 

II.     Two  syllables  in  first  thesis  :  ^  x  x  |  L  x  || 

calde  geSrungen.  Sea.  8. 
hreran  mid  hondum.  W .  4. 

wraeclico  w6rdriht.  Ex.  3.  beot  he  gelaeste.  Br.  15. 

Also  W.  33,  42,  43,  53,  etc.;  W.  1,  5,  8,  15,  16,  20,  etc.;  sum 
sum  9.  Sea.  34,  55,  56,  79,  16.  Sea.  9,  36,  39,  69,  etc.; 
88,  70.  Ex.  16,  19,  34,  38,  sum  10.  Ex.  35,  45,  62,  76, 
etc.;  sum  51.  Br.  5,  12,  21,  89,  etc.;  sum  54.  Br.  65, 14, 
30,  44,  etc. ;  sum  37.  80,  90,  etc. ;  sum  33. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis :  x  :  L  x  x  |  L  x  || 
genap  under  nihtSelm.  W.  96. 


54  O*  Amglo-Saam 

in  eeole-    Sea.  5. 


Br.  182.    his  ealdre  gelaestan.    Br.  11. 
Also  SOL  28,   95.      Ex.   259,     Br.  55,  66,  68,  84,  146,  189, 
269,  487.     Br.  32,  36,  176,         242. 
202,  efe.;  8am  10. 


(b)   two-syllable  anacrusis :  xx:£xx|\£x| 
~  $f  campe.    Ex.  21. 

1.  Reflation  of  the  first  arsis:  g  x  x  |  £  x  || 

wfnian  mid  wynnum.    W.  29.     haegl  feoll  on  eorSan.    Sea.  32. 

hafoc  wi«  «aes  hohes.  Br.  8.        Sider  waeron  fuse,     Ex.196. 
Abo  W.  11,  8,  32,  36.     Sea,  1,     W.  55,  65,  105.     Ex.    196, 

39,  87,  100.     Ex.  127,  191,         221,  226,  etc,;  sum  12.    Br. 

172,  557,  465.     Br.  50,  87,         22,  64, 128,  260,  280. 

194,227,  etc.;  sum  14. 

(a)   one-syllable  anacrusis :  x  :  ^  x  x  |  L  x  | 

gegrfmod  wearS    ae   gu^Srinc,     mid  gafole  forgyldon.    Br.  32. 
Br.  138.  Also  Br.  20,  59,  212,      Br.  96. 
221. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis :- x  x  j  ^  x  || 

hrime  bihrorene.    W.  77.  since  berofene.    Ex.  36. 

widgijie  weroda.    Ex.  137.  maerfci  gefreinedon.    Sea. 

Also  W.  79.     Ex.  235,  27,  W.  31,  38,  77.     Ex.  43,  444. 

336, etc.;  sum  9.     Br.  151,         Br.  6,  25,  51,  38,  2 

280,296. 

(a)   one-syllable  anacrusis :  x:^xx|^x| 

- 

fin*  liaVlf  1frm>     Ex.  252. 


«e  he  him  to  dtignSe,  Br.  197.     Abo  243. 

3.    Resolotion  of  both  arses :  &  *  *  \  &  x\\ 
bogxn  waeron  bysige.  fe.  110.     weoruld  under  heofonum.  W.  107. 
Also  111. 


On  Anglo-Saxxm  Versification. 

mae^en  o$$e  merestream.  Ex.     Dagas  sind  gewitene.   Sea.  80. 
110. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  £3  x  x  J  $$  *  \] 
gedroren  is  iSeos  dtiguS  eall.        $a  flotan  stodon  gearowe,    Br 

Sea.  86. 
Hi  bugon  $a  fram  headuwe,     Br.  185. 


4.    First  arsis  is  short  : 


x  x     L  x 


Hwaet  !  ge  nu  eagtim.  Ex.  278.       fi^m  se  i5e  laedde,   Kx.  54. 

x.  1ftrt  wael  feol  on  eorSan.     Br.  126. 

on  iSam  geraedum.    Br.  190. 


(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  w  x  x  |  ^  x  | 
to  hwon  hine  Dryhten.    Sea.  43. 
he  braec  ^Sonne  bordweall.     Br.  277. 

SCMHAKT. 

a.  b. 

Wanderer,  17.  '23. 

Seafarer,  15.  13. 

Eiodos,  72.  7a 

Battle  of  M.,        76L 

Total  in  a  :    180     Total  in  b  :  163 
Total  in  whole  line,    343. 

This  is  the  most  common  variation  of  the  normal  type  ;  and  as 
the  above  figures  indicate,  it  occurs  with  very  nearly  equal  fre- 
quency in  each  half-line.  In  the  individual  poems,  its  propor- 
tional frequency  is  greatest  in  the  Battle  of  Maldon,  and  least  in 
the  Seafarer  and  Exodus.  About  20  of  the  half-lines  included 
above  could  be  analysed  as  other  types  by  changing  the  sentence 
accent  and  giving  a  slightly  different  interpretation. 

III.     Two  syllables  in  the  second  thesis  :  ^  x  j  L  x  x     . 
6ft  him  anhaga.  W  1.  gielleS  anfloga.  Sea.  62. 

tinbefohtene.  Br.  57.  leode  6ngeton.  Ex.  90. 

Also  W.   6,    7,    38,    40,  etc.  ;     W.  53,  104.  Sea,  25.  Ex.  153, 


56  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

sum  11.  Sea.  14,  81,  89,  99.          180,  188,  219,  etc.;  sum  9. 
Ex.   37,  58,   60,   254,   289,         Br.  5,  318. 
etc. ;   sum  33.  Br.  38,  215, 
303,  311,  etc.;  sum  9. 

(a)  one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x:£  x  |  ix  x  || , 

ftaet  ge  gewurftien.  Ex.  270. 

Gehyrst  ftu  saelida.  Br.  45.  Also 
Ex.  126,  123,  409.  Br.  51. 

(b)  two-syllable  anacrusis  :  xx:^x|^xx||. 
oft  ftaet  hie  on  Guftmyrce.     Ex.  59. 

oft  ftaet  he  his  sincgyfan.     Br.  278. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  6$  x  |  L  x  x  ||  . 

baftian  brimfuglas.  W.  47.  wifterlean  agyfen.  Br.  116. 

Also  Ex.  8,  283,  380.  Br.  220. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :x:^xxf.£xx||. 
fte  wile  gealgian.  Br.  52. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  ^  x  |  £j  x  x  ||  . 

cuftra  cwidegiedda.    W.  55. 
haefde  foregenga.    Ex.  120. 
Also  W.  62,  Ex.  17,  177,  241, 
301,  565.  Br.  127,  309,  294. 

(a)    one  syllable  anacrusis :  x:^x  |  £xxx||. 
gesStte  sigerice.     Ex.   27.   Also 
562. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  14.  2. 

Seafarer,  4.  2. 

Exodus,  49.  9. 

B.  of  M.,  17.  4. 

Total  in  a:        84.       Total  in  b  :        17. 
Total  in  whole  line,  101. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  57 

This  modification  of  type  A  is  not  admitted  by  Prof.  Sievers,  as 
has  already  been  explained  in  Book  II,  Part  I,  page  35,  et  seq.y 
where  likewise  our  reasons  for  not  following  his  classification  have 
been  given  in  full.  Prof.  Sievers  would  class  these  examples  under 
D,  with  a  thesis  in  the  first  foot,  but  we  are  convinced  that  the 
Anglo-Saxon  poet,  in  the  recitation  of  these  verses,  did  not  mar 
the  smoothness  of  rhythm  by  putting  upon  the  thesis  of  the 
second  foot  the  secondary  stress  that  D  requires. 

Of  the  above  examples,  38  of  the  half-lines  might  be  classed 
under  a  different  type  by  a  slight  change  of  the  sentence  accent. 
As  is  shown  by  the  summary,  the  type  is  rare  in  the  second  half- 
line  ;  it  occurs  five  times  more  frequently  in  the  first.  The  pro- 
portional occurrence  of  the  type  is  greatest  in  the  Wanderer  and 
Exodus. 

IV.     Two  syllables  in  both  theses  :  ^  x  x  |  £.  x  x  ||  . 
he"alde  his  hord  cofan.  W.  14. 

eorSan  and  uprodor.  Ex.  76. 

Wodon  iSa  waelwulfas.  Br.  96. 
Also  W.  78.  Ex.  130,  182,  183, 

273,  etc.;   sum  11.  Br.  24, 

95,  266. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :x:^xx|^xx||. 

ac  a  hafaiS  longunge.   Sea.  47. 
Also  Br.  63,  79,  142,  196. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  ^  x  x  |  &  x  x  ||  . 
modige   me'teiSegnas.    Ex.    131.     Also  297. 
ongunnon  lytegian.    Br.  86. 

2.  Resolution  of  both  arses  :  6$  x  x  |  6$  x  x  ||  . 
Micel  is  $eos  menigeo.    Ex.  553.     Also  555.  (?) 

3.  Second  arsis  is  short :  ^  x  x    |  d  x  x  || 
yldo  him  on  fare<5.   Sea.  91. 


58  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  2. 

Seafarer,  2. 

Exodus,  15. 

Battle  of  M.,  9. 

Total  in  a  :        28. 

This  type,  like  the  preceding,  is  not  admitted  by  Prof.  Sievers ; 
but,  as  seen  from  the  examples,  there  are  several  half-lines  that 
can  hardly  be  classed  elsewhere,  if  the  rhythm  be  preserved.  The 
type  seems  to  be  entirely  lacking  in  the  second  half-line. 

Five  of  the  above  examples  might  be  classed  under  other  types. 

V.    Three  syllables    in  the  first  thesis,   one   in   the    second: 

L  x  x  x  |  L  x  || 

6ft  ic  sceolde  ana.    W.  8.  earfefta  gem/ndig.    W.  6. 

$aer  ic  ne  gehyrde.    Sea.  18.       se  waes  haten  Wulfstan.    Br.  75. 
Also  W.  41,  50,  97,  65.    Ex.24,     W.  14.     Ex.  249,  81.     Br. 

69,  73,  86,  109,  etc.;  sum  31.         297. 

Br.  11,  19,  31,  55,  76,  etc.; 

sum  23. 

(a)  one-syllable  anacrusis  :x:ixxx|^x|| 

he  le't  him  $a  of  handon.  gehyre  se  $e  wille.    Ex.  7.    Also 

Br.  7.   Also  Br.  23,  56,  70,  81,      Br.  282. 
117,  136,  193,  228.    Ex.  266. 

(b)  two-syllable  anacrusis  :  xx:^xxx|£x|| 
Oferfor  he  mid  «y  f6lce.    Ex.  56. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  &  x  x  x  |  L  x  || 

bodigean  aefter  btirgurn.     Ex.     for  'San  wearS  her  on  felda.    Br. 
510.  241-a  (?). 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x:uxxxx|^x|| 
to  raiSe  hine  gelStte.    Br.  164. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis :  ^  x  x  x  |  u^  x  || 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  59 

hu  hine  on  ge*ogu$e.     W.  35.      dreamas  sind  gewitene.    Sea.  86. 

Hwilum  of  'Sam  w6rode.     Ex. 

170.    Also  Sea.  50,  98.    W.  49.    Br.  67,  216. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  £  x  x  x  |  £x  x  || 
ne  mihte  -Saer  for  waetere.    Br.  64. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  7.  Wanderer,  2. 

Seafarer,  4.  Seafarer,  1. 

Exodus,  35.  Exodus,  3. 

B.  ofM.,  37.  B.  ofM.,  4. 

Total  m  a :          83.  Total  in  b :          10. 

Total  in  whole  line,  93. 

This  variation  of  the  normal  type  is  found  most  frequently  in 
the  first  half-line ;  and  in  the  individual  poems,  in  the  Battle  of 
Maldon.  There  are  14  half-lines  among  the  above  examples  that 
might  be  classed  elsewhere  with  a  slight  change  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  thought. 

VI.    Three  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  and  two  in  the  second  : 


L    X    X    X     \    L    X    X 


Ongietan  sceal  gleaw  haele.     W.  73-a. 

/ 
w^rcan  iSone  wihagan.     Br. 

102.    Also  Br.  261,  286. 

1.    Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  £x  x  x  x  |  L  x  x  || 
(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x:£xxxx|£xx|| 
Ne  maeg  him  iSonne  se  flaesc- 

homa.     Sea.  94. 
i 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  1.  Seafarer,  1.  B.  of  M.,  3. 

Total  (all  in  a),  5. 

This  type  is  of  very  rare  occurrence ;  it  does  not  appear  in  the 
second  half-line. 

VII.    Four  syllables  in  the  first  thesis,  one  in  the  second  : 


£  X  X  X  X   I   £  X 


60  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

yftde  swa  $isne  eardgeard.     W.  85-a. 

aerende  to  iSam  6orle    Br.  28. 

Also  W.  88.  Ex.  30,  228.  Br. 

10,  28,  35,  etc.;  sum  10. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x:^xxxx|^x|| 

be  iSam  man  mihte  oncnawan. 
Br.  9.     Also  Br.  14. 

1.    With  resolution  of  the  second  arsis :  L  x  x  x  x  |  £x  x  || 
hi  willaS  eow  to  gafole.     Br.  46.    Also  Ex.  117,  376,  463. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,          2.  Battle  of  Maldon,          1. 

Exodus,  5. 

B.  of  M.,  13. 

Total  in  a :       20.  Total  in  b :         1. 

Total  in  whole  line,  21. 

VIII.     Four  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  and  two  in  the  second  : 

£  x  x  x  x  I  .£  x  x  ||  . 

se  $e  nu  fram  this  wigplegan.    Br.  316. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis :  x:^xxxx  |  ^xx||. 
ne  fttirfon  me  embe  Sturmere,     Br.  249. 

SUMMARY. 
Battle  of  Maldon,        2.  Total  in  whole  line,        2. 

§  2.    TYPE  B.     Fundamental  type  :  x  L  \  x  L  || . 

This  type  numbers  325  examples — not  quite  one-third  as  many 
as  type  A.  It  occurs  most  frequently  in  the  second  half-line  in 
all  the  poems  except  the  Wanderer.  Its  occurrence  is  propor- 
tionally rarest  in  Exodus.  There  are  139  examples  in  the  first 
half-line,  and  186  in  the  second. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  61 

I.     Normal  type  :  x  x  L  \  x  L  ||  . 

a.  b. 

Ne  maeg  werigmod.    W.  15.          mid  his  sylfes  miht.     Ex.  9. 

ne  to  wife  wynn.     Sea.  45.  fte  her  ricost  eart.     Br.  36. 

Also  W.  22,  39,  60,  etc. ;  sum  7.     W.    9,    11,    32,   33,   43,   etc.; 

Sea.  77.    Ex.  12,  28,  48,  49,     sum  8.   Sea.  12,  18,  29,  33,  etc.; 

etc. ;  sum  11.   Br.  5,  27,  60,       sum  7.     Ex.  48,  22,  91,  etc. ; 

77,  etc. ;  sum  19.  sum  27.    Br.  38,  50,  78,  etc.; 

sum  18. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  x  x  ^  |  x  L  ||  . 

Het  iSa  haeleiSa  hleo.     Br.  74.      ne  to  worulde  hyht.     Sea.  45. 

fte  him  maenigne  oft.    Br.  188.     ic  on  b6teran  raed.    Ex.  269. 

Also  Ex.  339,  471,  Br.  147,  250. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis :  x  x  L  \  x  £x  ||  . 

•<Saet  waes  wlglic  werod.  Ex.  223.    hwaer  cwom  ma^^um  gyfa. 
Also  Ex.  43,  425,  439,  452.        W.   92.     Ex.   27.     Br.   222, 
Br.  2,  218.  267,  299,  76.    Sea.  21. 

3.  Second  arsis  is  short :  x  x  L  \  x  c  ||  . 

Simle  ^reora  stim.    Sea.  68.         swa  him  mihtig  god.    Ex.  314. 

Also  Ex.  85,  310,  377,  426.    «aer  him  leoTost  waes.    Br.  23. 

Sea.  6.    Ex.  152,  380,  399. 
Br.  190,  211. 

4.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis ;    the  second  arsis  is  short : 

x  x  £c    |   x  (.  ||  . 

sumne  fugel  oftbaer.    W.  81. 
he  to  mae*niguni  spraec.   Ex.  552. 
Also  Br.  31,  276. 

5.  Both  arses  are  short :  x  x  6  |  x  (,  \\  . 

seo  $e  fre*o$e  sceal.    Ex.  422. 


62  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  8.  Wanderer,  11. 

Seafarer,  3.  Seafarer,  11. 

Exodus,  20.  Exodus,  38. 

B.  of  M.,  23.  B.  of  M.,  29. 

Total  in  a:          54.  Total  in  b :          89. 

Total  in  whole  line,    143. 

We  have  called  this  the  normal  form  of  type  B  because  it 
occurs  much  more  frequently  than  the  form  x  L  \  x  L  ||.  This  is 
true,  not  only  of  the  four  poems  treated  in  this  discussion,  but 
likewise  of  those  analysed  by  Sievers,  Frucht,  and  Cremer — com- 
prising all  together  over  10,000  lines — and  it  is  probably  equally 
true  of  the  whole  body  of  Anglo-Saxon  poetry. 

The  type  is  found  most  frequently  in  the  second  half-line,  occur- 
ring there  almost  twice  as  often  as  in  the  first.  Among  the  above 
examples,  there  are  nine  that  might  be  classed  under  other  types 
by  slightly  changing  the  interpretation. 

II.    One  syllable  in  each  thesis :  x  L  \  x  L  || 
and  hwilpan  sweg.     Sea.  21.        wrSfeonda  nr3.     Sea.  75. 

on  liSra  last.     Ex.  167.  and  ealde  swurd.     Br.  47. 

Also  Ex.  237,  337,  etc.;  sum      Sea.  90.  Ex.  17,  71,   etc.;   sum 

7.    Br.  58, 125,  162,  etc.;  10.     Ex.  11.  Br.  215,  237. 

sum  6. 

1.  Kesolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  x  £x  |  x  L  || 

and  w6reda  god.     Ex.  432. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis:  x  L  \  x  6$  \\ 

his  swaesne  sunu.     Ex.  402.        wiS  wra^ra  gryre.    Ex.  20. 

$a  stdd  on  sta^e.     Br.  25.         him  eallum  wile.    Ex.  261. 
Also  Br.  115. 

3.  Resolution  of  both  arses  :  x  6$  \  x  6$  \\  . 

on  geofones  sta$e.    Ex.  580.         swa  haleS  geMnon.    Ex.  388. 

4.  Second  arsis  is  short :  x  L  \  x  w  II  . 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  63 

on  folc  getael.    Ex.  299.  hu  gae*stlic  bi$.     W.  73. 

SUMMARY. 


Seafarer, 

1. 

Wanderer, 

1. 

Exodus, 

10. 

Seafarer, 

2. 

B.  of  M., 

8. 

Exodus, 

14. 



B.  of  M., 

3. 

Total  in  a  :        19. 

Total  in  b  :  20. 

Total  in  whole  line,  39. 

This  type  is  pretty  evenly  distributed  between  the  two  half-lines. 
There  is  one  example  among  the  above  that  could  possibly  be 
classed  elsewhere. 

III.  Two  syllables  in  the  second  thesis  :  x  L  \  x  x  L  ||  . 

mid  halige  hand.    Ex.  485.         aet  hilde  ne  deah.    Br.  48. 
Also  Br.  29,  72.  Ex.  37,  215.    Br.  49. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  x  6$  \  x  x  L  ||  . 

gaft  ricene  to  us.    Br.  93. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  x  L  \  x  x  £x  ||  . 
gesilrS  him  biforan.    W.  46. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  1.  Exodus,  2. 

Exodus,  1.  B.  of  M.,  3. 

B.  of  M.,  2. 

Total  in  b  :  5. 

Total  in  a  :  4. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,  9. 

Two  of  these  examples  might  be  included  under  other  types. 

IV.  Two  syllables  in  each  thesis  :  x  x  L  \  x  x  L  ||  . 

hwaer  ic  fe"orr  o&Se  neah.  W.  26.  hwilum  ylfete  song.    Sea.  19. 

/  /  i_ 

forSon  anra  gehwilc.    Ex.  187.    and  ne  forhtedon  na.    Br.  21. 

Also  W.  51,63,72.  Sea.  90.  Sea.  46.  Ex.  101,  204,  304, 
Ex.  227,  230,  476.  Br.  22,  etc.;  sum  10.  Br.  34,  77,  etc.; 
91,  128,  etc. ;  sum  12.  sum  6. 


64  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  x  x  ux  |  x  x  L  ||  . 

ofer  waftema  gebind.    W.  57.      ofer  waftema  gebiiid.    W.  24. 

ne  his  gifena  ftaes  god.    S.  40.     se  fta  menigeo  beheold.   Ex.  205. 
Also  Br.  112,  320.  Ex.  488. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  x  x  L  \  x  x  6$  \\  . 

ne  to  forht  ne  to  fae"gen.   W.  68.    fta  ic  aer  ne  gefraegen.    Ex.  285. 
ofer  holma  gelagu.    Sea.  64.         oiSfte  Iel5fne  gewrecan.    Br.  208. 

nu  ic  ah  milde  me"  tod.  Br.  175. 

Also  W.  92, 93.  Br.263.    Ex.  255,  561. 

3.  Second  arsis  is  short :  x  x  L  \  x  x  o  ||  . 

he  gehleop  Sone  eoh.    Br.  189.    $e  him  Drihten  forgeaf.    Br.  148. 
Also  Br.  198,  295,  191.  Br.  245. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,             8.  Wanderer,  1. 

Seafarer,                3.  Seafarer,  2. 

Exodus,                 6.  Exodus,  13. 

B.  of  M.,           20.  B.  of  M.,  9. 


Total  in  a :          37.  Total  in  b :         25. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,  62. 

Of  the  above  examples,  nine  may  be  classed  under  other  types  by 
a  slight  change  of  the  sentence  accent. 

V.    Three  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  :  x  x  x  L  \  x  L  ||  . 

•Sonne  on  wae"cne$  6ft.   W.  45.       full  oft  iSaet  earn  bigSall.   Sea. 

/  /  24 

Saet  him  aet  fotum  feoll.  Br.  119.  _ 

AI      i5     -IQ*    0^70  se  ^e  him  lange  aer.    Ex.138. 
Also  Br.  186,  273.  W.  75,  82    Sea.  27,  64,  65. 

Ex.   199,  275,  etc.;  sum   6. 
Br.  10,  13,  28,  etc.;  sum  15. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  x  x  x  6x  \  x  L  ||  . 
Saet  hine  weroda  g6d.     Ex.  23.     Also  Br.  16. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  x  x  x  L  \  x  6x  \\  . 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  65 

ftaet  ftaer  gelaSe  mid  him.    Ex.    $y  laes  him  we*sten  gryre.    Ex. 
206.    Also  Ex.  428.  117.    Br.  30,  140,  252. 

3.  First  arsis  is  short  :  x  x  x  6  |  x  L  ||  . 

/ 
and  niman  friiS  aet  us.    Br.  39. 

4.  Second  arsis  is  short  :  x  x  x  L  \  x  u  ||  . 

Saet  se  on  eorSan  laeg.    Br.  157. 
Also  Br.  168,  204,  227. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,              1.                              Wanderer,  2. 

Exodus,                 3.                              Seafarer,  4. 

B.  of  M.,              4.                              Exodus,  7. 

B.  of  M.,  23. 

Total  in  a  :        8.  Total  in  b  :       36. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,  44. 

VI.    First  arsis  resolved  ;  three  syllables  in  the  second  thesis  : 

x  £x.    I  x  x  x  L  ||  . 

u  iSe  eow.     Br.  48. 


VII.  The   first   arsis    resolved;   the  second   short;  the  first 
thesis  has  two  syllables,  the  second  three  :  xx^  |  xxxu||. 

ne  in  geogirSe  to  iSaes  hwaet.    Sea.  40. 

VIII.  Three  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  ;  two  in  the  second  : 


^      xx.i 


ne  naefre  gielpes  to  georn.  W.  69.    and  iSonne  godan  forlet.  Br.  187. 
gesealde  waepna   ge  weald.    Ex.  20.    Also  W.  107. 

1.  First  arsis  resolved  :  x  x  x  g$  |  x  x  £  jj  . 

ftaet  he  swa  miceles  ge'Sah.    Ex.  143. 

$a  ic  on  w6rulde  gebad.  Br.  174. 

2.  Second  arsis  resolved  :  x  x  x  L  \  x  x  6$  \\ 

%Q  ic  on  morgen  gefraegn.    Ex.  98.     Also  Br.  90. 

3.  Second  arsis  is  short  :  xxx^:|xxu|| 

$e  him  $a  wtinde  forg^af.  Br.  139. 


66  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  2.  Exodus,  1. 

Exodus,  2.  B.  of  M.,  3. 

B.  ofM.,  1. 

Total  in  a :  5.  Total  in  b :  4. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,  9. 

IX.  Four  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  :  x  x  x  x  ^  |  x  ^  ||  . 

for  $on  ne  maeg  weorSan.  wis.     and  to  iSaere  hilde  stop.    Br.  8. 
W.  64. 

forSon  him  gelyfe$  lyt.  Sea.  27.     $a  he  ftone  cniht  genam.  Ex.  406. 
Also  Br.  71,  239  (?). 

1.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :xxxx£|xgf|j. 
Ne  br3  him  to  hearpan  hyge.    Sea.  44. 

2.  Resolution  of  both  arses  :  x  x  x  x  g;  |  x  gx.  )| . 

$onne  eall  iSisse  worulde  wela.    W.  74. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  2.  Exodus,  1. 

Seafarer,  2.  B.  of  M.,  1. 

B..of  M.,  2. 

Total:        6.  Total:        2. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,  8. 

X.  Three  syllables  in  each  thesis  :  xxx^|xxx^||. 

ne  in  his  daedum  to  iSaes  deor.     ne  him  his  Dryhten  to  ^aes  hold. 
Sea.  41.  Sea.  41. 

Total  in  both  halves,  2. 

XI.  Four   syllables    in   the   first    thesis,   two   in   the   second : 

xxxx.£   I   x  x  ^  ||  . 

ForSon  $aet  (is)  eorla  gehwam.   -Sara  3e  him  drihten  bebead.   Ex. 
Sea.  72.  520. 

'Seah  $e  him  on  healfa  gehwam.    i5e  'Saet  he  on  hilde  gecranc.    Br. 
Ex.  209,  324.. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  67 

1.     Second  thesis  is  short :  x  x  x  x  £  |  x  x  u  ||  . 
ForSon  ic  ge$6ncan  ne  maeg.    W.  58. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  1.  Exodus,  1. 

Seafarer,  1.  B.  of  M.,  1. 

Exodus,  1. 

Total  :     3.  Total  :     2. 

Total  in  both  halves,      5. 

XII.    Five  syllables  in  the  first  thesis,  one  in  the  second : 

xxxxx^  I  x  ^  ||  . 

ne  mihte  $a  on  fotum  Ifng.    Br.  171. 

1.    Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  xxxxx^   |  x  gx  || 

•Sa  hwile  "5e  he  waepen  maege.     Br.  235. 

SUMMARY. 

Battle  of  Maldon,         1.  Battle  of  Maldon,         1. 

Total  in  both  half -lines,      2. 

§  3.     TYPE  C.     Fundamental  type :  x  L  \  L  x  ||  . 

This  type  occurs  a  little  less  frequently  than  type  B.  It  is 
very  evenly  distributed  between  the  two  half-lines,  there  being 
136  examples  in  the  first,  and  147  in  the  second. 

I.    Normal  type  :  x  x  L  \  L  x  ||  . 

/  __/_         _/_ 

for  'Son  domgeorne.    W.  17.         ftaet  ic  hean  streamas.    Sea.  34. 

and  gewurSodne.    Ex.  31.  ftaet  se  cniht  nolde.    Br.  9. 

Also  W.  94, 109.    Sea.  9,  57,  W.  42,  66,  67,  etc. ;    sum  8. 

69,  78.    Ex.   82,   153,   124,  Sea.  51,   83.    Ex.   127,   163, 

etc.;    sum    12.     Br.    6,    89,  236,   291,  etc.;    sum  8.    Br. 

225,260,317.  136,  153,  182,  etc. ;    sum  10. 

1.    Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  x  x  6$  \  L  x  ||  . 

i 
mine  ce&re  cwrSan.    W.  9.  fore  medodrince.    Sea.  22. 

/ 
aefter  bealusrSe.    Ex.  5.  us  to  scype  gangan.    Br.  40. 

Also  Sea.  60,  96.  Ex.  25,  W.  54,  69.  Sea.  56,  87.  Ex. 
75,  etc. ;  sum  12.  Br.  129,  29,  52,  131,  etc. ;  sum  8.  Br. 
137,  306.  41,  61,  etc. ;  sum  13. 


68 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 


2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  x  x  4 1  £f  x  || . 

wrS  «a  fynd  wfredon.    Br.  82.    Also  256. 

3.  Resolution  of  both  arses  :  x  x  ^    6$  x  ||  . 
$aer  $a  cSare  seofedun.   Sea.  10. 

4.  First  arsis  is  short :  x  x  u  |  L  x  ||  . 

her  bi«  feoh  lake.    W.  108.        Sieh  he  graef  wille.    Sea.  97-a. 
Also  Br.  276. 

5.  Second  arsis  is  short :  x  x  L  \  6  x  ||  . 

ne  se  hreo  hyge.    W.  16.  $aet  ic  fe"orr  heonan.    Sea.  37. 

he  waes  leof  gode.    Ex.  12.  and  se  a&sche're.    Br.  69. 

Also  W.  19,  59,  67,86, 101.  W.  23,   70,   94,   103.    Sea. 

Sea.  53,  67.    Ex.  33,  110,  44,  70,  92.    Ex.  268,  274, 

157,  etc.;    sum  15.    Br.  62,  337,  224,  etc.;  sum  7.     Br. 

98,  100,  145.  91,  104,  268,  290. 

6.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis,  the  second  arsis  being  short : 

x  x  &   I  J  x  ||  . 

se  gesta^elade.    Sea.  104.  ofer  hre'fterlocan.    Sea.  58. 

Also  Ex.  172,  397,  542.    Br.  199. 


SUMMARY. 


Wanderer, 
Seafarer, 
Exodus, 
B.  of  M., 


11. 
10. 
42. 
14. 


Wanderer, 
Seafarer, 
Exodus, 
B.  of  M., 


14. 
12. 
23. 

30. 


Total  in  a  :      77. 


Total  in  b  :       79. 


Total  in  both  half-lines,  156. 

We  have  called  this  the  normal  form  of  type  C,  inasmuch  as 
more  than  half  of  all  the  examples  are  included  under  it.  There 
are  more  than  twice  as  many  examples  here  as  there  are  under  the 
form  x  L  |  L  x  ||  .  It  is  to  be  noted  that  nearly  half  of  these 
examples  are  of  the  form  x  x  L  \  6  x  ||  ,  illustrating  the  principle 
discussed  in  Book  II,  Part  I,  that  where  two  rhythmical-accents 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  69 

fall  on  adjoining  syllables,  the  second   of  these   syllables  is  fre- 
quently, if  not  regularly,  a  light  or  "  short "  syllable. 

Fourteen  of  the  above  examples  could  possibly  be  included 
under  other  types,  if  a  slight  change  be  made  in  the  interpretation, 
necessitating  a  corresponding  change  in  the  sentence-accent. 

II.    One  syllable  in  each  thesis  :  x  L  \  L  x  ||  . 

,  / 

in  brfmlade.    Sea.  30.  gedon  wille.    Sea.  43. 

ftaes  daSgweorces.  Br.  148.  geseon  mlhton.  Ex.  83.  Sea.  69. 
Also  Ex.  271,  315,  393,  401,  Ex.  185,  434,  442,  562.  Br. 
etc.;  sum  7.  Br.  293.  3,  197,  224,  291. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  x  £x  |  L  x  ||  . 

geond  lagulade.    W.  3.  his  wine"dryhtnes.    W.  37. 

to  da6ge  iSissum.  Ex.  263.  geblden  hae"bbe.  Sea.  4.  Sea.  7, 
Also  Ex.  516.  59,  101.  Ex.  1,  64,  365, etc.; 

sum  7.    Br.  4,  56. 

2.  Resolution  of  both  arses  :  x  rfx  |  rfx  x  ||  . 
mid  friSe  %ian.    Br.  179. 

3.  First  arsis  is  short :  x  (,  \  L  x  ||  . 
on  not  feran.    Br.  41. 

4.  Second  arsis  is  short :  x  L  \  (,  x  ||  . 

in  geardagum.    W.  41.  and  sinc^ege.     W.  34. 

on  flodwegas.     Sea.  52.     Also  and  uprodor.    Sea.  105.    Ex.  26. 

Br.  109.  W.  83.     Sea.  83.  W.  35,  58.    Ex.  32,  68,  86, 

Ex.  4,  10,  66,  68,  etc. ;  sum  etc. ;  sum  10. 
13. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  3.  Wanderer,  4. 

Seafarer,  3.  Seafarer,  7. 

Exodus,  21.  Exodus,  22. 

B.  of  M.,  5.  B.  of  M.,  7. 

Total  in  a:  32.  Total  in  b :  40. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,  72. 


70  On  Anglo-Saxon   Versification. 

Here  we  find  again  that  nearly  half  of  the  examples  are  of  the 
type  x  L  |  J  x  ||  in  accordance  with  the  principle  mentioned  under 
I  above. 

III.1    Two  syllables  in  the  second  thesis  :  x  L  \  L  x  x  ||  . 

$e  $aer  baldlicost.    Br.  78.  ac  hi  faestlice.    Br.  82. 

Also  Br.  116,  173. 

1.    The  first  arsis  is  short :  x  u  |  L  x  x  ||  . 

to  on  I6cia3.    Ex.  278.    Also  Br.  315. 

SUMMARY. 

B.  of  M.,  4.  Exodus,  1.  B.  of  M.,  1. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,    6. 

One  of  the  above  examples  might  be  classed  elsewhere. 

IV.  Two  syllables  in  each  thesis  :  x  x  L  \  L  x  x  ||  . 

for  $on  wat  se  fte  sceal.  W.  37.    $aet  hi  iSaer  bricgweardas.  Br.  85. 

Also   Sea.   84,    85.    Br.   106, 
258.    Ex.  51. 

1.     Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  x  x  6x  \  L  x  x  ||  . 

ne  syn  godes  ^codscipes.    Ex.  528. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  1.     Seafarer,  2.     Exodus,  1.     B.  of  M.,  3.  Exodus,  1. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,  8. 

Two  of  these  examples  might  be  classed  elsewhere. 

V.  Three  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  :  x  x  x  L  \  L  x  ||  . 

ofrSe  mec  freondleasne.  W.  28.    ftaet  he  his  monn  dryhten.  W.  41. 

Also  66.  $a  he  gemo't  haefde.    Br.  199. 

Also  Ex.  319. 

ftonne  we  swa  hearde.    Br.  33. 

1  III  and  IV  can  be  classed  under  D  with  anacrusis. 


On  Anglo-feaxon  Versification.  71 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  x  x  x  £j  |  L  x  ||  . 

gemon  he  sflesecgas.    W.  34.       se  $e  on  lagu  fundaft.    Sea.  47. 

and  $oiie  st£de  he"alden.  Br.  19. 
Also  Br.  193,  194,  etc.  ;  sum 
6.  W.  93.  Ex.  172. 

2.  Resolution  of  both  arses  :  x  x  x  6*  \  6*  x  ||  . 
ongann  fta  winas  manian.    Br.  228. 

3.  First  arsis  is  short  :  x  x  x  «  |  L  x  ||  . 

gif  hine  god  lete.    Ex.  413.    Also  Sea.  99. 

4.  The  second  arsis  is  short  :  x  x  x  L  \  C  x  ||  . 

ftaet  he  his  feYSlocan.    W.  13.       hu  ic  geswmcdagum.    Sea.  2. 
.*_••—  1_.       -L      ,          -^  ongann  $a  for$  b6ran.    Br.  12. 

°  '' 


n     w  Sea.  102.    Br.  57,  44.    W.  2. 

Also  W.  10,  18,  31. 


5.    Both  arses  are  short  :  x  x  x  u  |  u  x 
aer  he  onwe*g  scyle.    Sea.  74. 

SUMMARY. 


Wanderer, 

8. 

Wanderer, 

3. 

Exodus, 

1. 

Seafarer, 

5. 

B.  of  M., 

1. 

Exodus, 

4. 

B.  of  M., 

11. 

Total  in  a :          10.  Total  in  b :          23. 

Total  in  both  halves,  33. 

There  are  two  doubtful  examples  among  the  above.    By  change 
of  the  sentence-accent  they  may  be  classed  elsewhere. 

VI.    Four  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  :  x  x  x  x  ^  |  ^  x  ||  . 
Saet  he  a  his  saefore.    Sea.  42.    Also  Sea.  102.    Br.  34. 

1.    Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  xxxx^x  |  ^  x  ||  . 

i 
ftonne  he  be  clifum  cnossaft.  Sea.  8.    fte  we  oft  aet  meodo  spraecon. 

Also  Sea.  58.    W.  27.  Br.  212. 


72  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

2.    Second  arsis  is  short :  xxxx^  |  o  x  ||  . 
ofer  $one  ford  faran.    Br.  88.     Also  Ex.  414. 

SUMMARY. 

Seafarer,  4.  Seafarer,  1. 

Exodus,  1.  B.  of  M.,  1. 

B.  of  M.,  2. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,     9. 

VII.     Five  syllables  in  the  first  thesis  :  xxxxxi|^x||. 

iSonne  hit  aenig  mae$  waere.    Br.  195. 
SUMMARY.     1. 

§  4.    TYPE  D.    Fundamental  types:    •    D/,  ^   '  "*  J  ' 

A  little  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  2,200  half-lines  in  the  four 
poems  belong  here.  This  type  is  most  frequent  in  the  first  half- 
line,  occurring  there  nearly  twice  as  often  as  in  the  second.  In 
the  individual  poems,  it  is  found  most  frequently  in  the  Seafarer 
and  Exodus. 

I.    Normal  type  of  D' :  L  \  L  ±  x  ||  . 
hrrS  hrelisende.    W.  102.  feorh  6««rtngeS.    Sea.  71. 

f61c  ferende.    Ex.  45.    Also  brfmllSSndra.    Br.  27. 

Sea.  22,  38,  56,  73.    Ex.  84,        W.  51,  60.    Ex.  156,  178, 
96,  119,  etc. ;  sum  14.    Br.         184,   187,  etc. ;  sum  11.    Br. 
121,  122,  219,  254,  308.  122,  165,  etc. ;  sum  8. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  $$  |  £  i  x  ||  . 

w&dan  wraeclastas.    W.  5.  w6ruld  6nn£tte$.    Sea.  49. 

wigan  wigheardne.    Br.  75.  we*rod  forbaernde.    Ex.  123. 

Also  Ex.  112, 133, 175,  223,        Ex.  3,  217,  420,  500.    Br. 

503.    Br.  262.  255. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  ^  |  &  ±  x  ||  . 

unswiciendo.    Ex.  424.    Also  Ex.  561. 


On  Anglo-Saxon   Versification.  73 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  L  \  6$  ±  x  ||  . 
iSaet  hie  lifigende.  Ex.  264. 

3.  Resolution  of  both  arses  :   ^  |  6$  ±  x  \\  . 
swaefon  s6ledreamas.    Ex.  36. 

Mcon  lagustreamas.    Br.  66. 
Also  Ex.  257,  341,  527. 

4.  Resolution  of  the  accented  part  of  the  thesis :  ^  |  L  £5  x  ||  . 

ymbwicigean.    Ex.  65  (?). 
folc  somnigean.    Ex.  217  (?). 

By  writing  the  forms  ymbwician  and  somnian,  these  lines  would 
be  brought  under  the  more  common  type :  L  \  L  i  x  ||  . 

5.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  and  of  the  accented  part  of  the 
thesis :  6$  \  L  0^  x  ||  . 

s6mod  ae'tgae'dere.    Ex.  214. 
Also  Ex.  247. 

6.  First  arsis  is  short :  u  |  L  ±  x  ||  . 
brim  be"rstende.    Ex.  477.     Also  Ex.  443. 

7.  Second  arsis  is  short :  L  \  6  ±  x  ||  . 

mismicelra.    Ex.  373.  eor^cyninga.    Ex.  392. 

Also  Ex.  412. 

8.  The  first  arsis  is  resolved,  the  second  short :  ^  |  u  i  x  ||  . 
fe"la  meoringa.    Ex.  62.  heofon  cyninge.    Ex.  410. 

9.  Accented  syllable  of  the  thesis  is  short :  ^  |  L  o  x  ||  . 
6ft  earmcearig.    W.  20.  6ft  3r6wade.    Sea.  3. 

la-5  leodhata.    Ex.  40.  hand  wlsode.    Br.  141. 

Also  Sea.  31,   59.    Br.   61.        Sea.  35.    Ex.  40,  158,  etc.; 
Ex.  50,  etc. ;  sum  11.  sum  6.    B.  251. 

(a)    One-syllable  anacrusis :  x  :  L  \  L  u  x  ||  . 
ageat  gylp  w^ra.    Ex.  514.    (?) 


74  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

10.  First  arsis  is  resolved ;  accented  syllable  of  the  thesis  is 
short :  &  |  ^  0  x  ||  . 

nearo  nrSwaco.    Sea.  6.  byrig  faegriaiS.    Sea.  48. 

godes  andsacan.    Ex.  15.  hyse  unweaxen.    Br.  152. 

Also  Ex.  219,  458, 474,  526.        Ex.   48,   78,   113,  242,  etc.; 

sum  9. 

(a)   One-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  6$  \  L  d  x  ||  . 
Ne  sleh  $u,  Abraham.    Ex.  418. 

11.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis:  accented  syllable  of  the 
thesis  is  short :  ^  |  £j  a  x  ||  . 

hreo  haeglfare>    W.  105.  ecg  grymetode.    Ex.  408. 

Also  Br.  42,  309. 

12.  First  arsis  is  short ;  accented  syllable  of  the  thesis  is  short : 
0  |^x||. 

fre6m  folct6ga.    Ex.  14.  grrS  faestnian.    Br.  35. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  4.  Wanderer,  2. 

Seafarer,  7.  Seafarer,  5. 

Exodus,  50.  Exodus,  38. 

B.  of  M.,  9.  B.  of  M.,  15. 

Total  in  a :          70.  Total  in  b :          60. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,    130. 

This  type  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  the  variations  of  the 
normal  form  that  occur ;  most  of  these  are  in  Exodus. 

Sixteen  of  the  above  examples  may,  with  a  change  of  the 
sentence-accent,  be  classed  under  other  types. 

II.    One-syllable  first  thesis  :  ^  x  |  ^  i  x  ||  . 

faegum  fromweardum.    Sea.  71.   deope  geond$5nce$.    W.  89. 

,  Also  52. 

blicon  bordhreoiSan.    Ex.  159. 

%i  he  6$erne.    Br.  143.  aeTtercw<33£ndra.    Sea.  71. 

Also  Ex.  168,437,519,  531. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  75 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  £3  x  |  L  ±  x  ||  . 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  Q  x  |.  ^.ix  J| . 
abrocene  burhw£ardas.    Ex.  39. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  ^  x  |  6x  ±  x  \\  . 

v 

sohte  seledreorig.    W.  25. 
Also  Ex.  55,  102,  181,  284, 
453,  etc. ;  sum  10. 

3.  Resolution  of  the  accented  part  of  the  thesis  :  ^  x  |  L  ux  x  ||  . 
Wolde  reordigean.    Ex.  256.         e6rSan  forgiefenne.    Sea.  93. 

folmum  werigean.    Ex.  237. 
Also  Ex.  190. 

By  writing  reordigan  and  werigan  the  examples  256-a  and  237 -b 
would  be  brought  under  a  more  common  type. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  £  x  |  £  gj  x  || . 
bihongen  hrimgicelum.    Sea.  17. 

4.  The  accented  part  of  the  thesis  is  short :  L  x  |  L  5  x  ||  . 
bitre  breostceare.    Sea.  4.  wop  up  ahafen.    Ex.  200. 
faegerf6rh«locan.    Ex.  267. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  ^  x  |  i  a  x  ||  . 
forbaerned  burhhleo^u.    Ex.  70. 

5.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  ;  accented  syllable  of  the  thesis 
is  short :  ^  x  |  gx  d  x  ||  . 

hatum  heofoncolum.    Ex.  71. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  1.  Wanderer,  2. 

Seafarer,  3.  Seafarer,  2. 

Exodus,  20.  Exodus,  3. 

B.  ofM.,  1. 

Total  in  a:          25.  Total  in  b :  7. 

Total  in  whole  line,  32. 


76  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

Sixteen  of  the  above  examples  might  possibly  be  classed  elsewhere. 

III.    Two  unaccented  syllables  in  the  thesis  :  ^  x  |  L  i  x  x  ||  . 
wonn  waelceasega.    Ex.  164.    Also  Ex.  44. 

SUMMARY  :    Exodus,  2. 

I.    Normal  type  D"  :  L  \  L  x  i  || 
we*all  wundrum  heah.    W.  98.     flod  blod  gewod.    Ex.  462.  Also 

Hlud  hedges  cyrm.    Ex.  107. 

Also  Sea.  32.   Ex.  140,  169,    b6rd  ord  on  feng.    Br.  110. 
220,  291,  etc.;   sum  8.    Br. 
42,  107,  157,  169,  238,  247. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x:^x|^xi||. 
•Saet  he"  ealdord6m.    Ex.  317. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  &  |  L  x  ^  ||  . 

m6naiS  modes  lust.    Sea.  36.         dtigu$  call  gecr6ng.    W.  79. 
Also  Ex.  47,  105,  203,  450,        Ex.  41,  300,  346,  550,  447, 
576.    Br.  210,  283.  499. 

2.  Both  arses  are  resolved  :  *  i     . 


hSofon  iSider  becom.    Ex.  46. 

3.  Accented  syllable  of  the  thesis  is  short  :  L  \  L  x  5  ||  . 
fa&t  fyrd  getrum.    Ex.  178.        feorr  6ft  gemdn.    W.  90. 

Also  W.  30. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  L  \  L  x  i  ||  . 
$aet  eow  mihtig  god.    Ex.  292. 

4.  First  arsis  is  resolved  ;  the  accented  syllable  of  the  thesis 
is  short  :  ^  |  L  x  c>  ||  . 

aifenleoS.    Ex.  165  and  201. 
Also  Ex.  537,  203,  234. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  77 

5.    Second  arsis  is    resolved;    accented  part  of  the  thesis   is 
short :  L  \  &  x  o  ||  . 

frod  faedera  cyn.    Ex.  29. 

SUMMARY. 


Seafarer, 

2. 

Wanderer, 

3. 

Wanderer, 

2. 

Exodus, 

10. 

Exodus, 

22. 

B.  of  M., 

1. 

B.  of  M., 

8. 

Total  in  a:      34.  Total  in  b :      14. 

Total  in  both  halves,     48. 

Two  of  these  examples  might  possibly  be  classed  elsewhere. 
II.    One  syllable  in  the  first  thesis  :  L  x  |  L  x  i  || . 
hrebsan  hrim  and  snaw.  W.  48.    htingor  innan  slat.    Sea.  11. 

Wod  $a  wlges  heard.    Br.  130.    haefde  wltig  g6d.    Ex.  80. 
Also  Br.  60.    Ex.  214,  346,        Sea.  79.    Br.  130. 
567. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis :  ^  x  |  t$  x  i  ||  . 
singed  sumeres  weard.    Sea.  54. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  accented  part  of  the  thesis  :  ^  x  |  ^  x  ^  ||  . 
Bedrwas  blostmum  nimaft.    Sea.  48. 

3.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis,  and  also  of  the  accented  part 
of  the  thesis  :  £x  x  |  L  x  ux  ||  . 

we*roda  wuldor  cyning.    Ex.  547. 

4.  The  accented  part  of  the  thesis  is  short :  L  x  |  L  L  s  ||  . 
_/_ 

waeron  inge  m5n.    Ex.  190. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x:^x  |  £xC»||. 
Forl^t  «a  dr^nga  sum.    Br.  149. 


78  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

SUMMARY. 


Wanderer, 

1. 

Seafarer, 

2. 

Seafarer, 

2. 

Exodus, 

1. 

Exodus, 

5. 

B.  of  M., 

1. 

B.  of  M., 

3. 

Total  in  a :  11.  Total  in  b :  4. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,  15. 

Six  of  these  half-lines  might  possibly  be  included  elsewhere. 

III.  Two  syllables   before  the  accented  part  of  the   second 
thesis  :  ^  |  _  x  x  i  ||  . 

eald  fnta  geweorc.    W.  87.    Also  Ex.  490. 

1.    Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  ^  |  ^  x  x  i  ||  . 
atol  fSa  gewealc.    Sea.  6.    Also  Ex.  381,  455,  588. 

SUMMARY. 

Wanderer,  1.  Seafarer,  1.  Exodus,  4. 

Total,  6. 

Two  of  the  above  examples  might  be  classed  elsewhere,  with  a 
change  in  the  interpretation. 

IV.  A  syllable  after  the  accented  part  of  the  thesis  :  ^  |  ^  x  i  x  ||  . 

bae~rst  bordes  laerig.    Br.  284. 

(a)    One-syllable  anacrusis  :  x:^|^xix||. 

_L  '     .     v 

ftaet  iSaer  modiglice.    Br.  200. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  £j  |  L  x  i  x  ||  . 
flugon  forhtigende.    Ex.  452. 

Also  Ex.  91,  379,  515. 

2.  The  accented  syllable  of  the  thesis  is  short :  L  \  L  x  w  x  ||  . 
wod  wintercearig.    W.  24. 

SUMMARY. 
Wanderer,  1.         Exodus,  4.         B.  of  M.,  2.  Total,  7. 


On  Anglo-Saxon   Versification.  79 

Several  of  these  examples  might  possibly  be  included  under 
other  types. 

V.  One  syllable  first  thesis,  and  two  syllables  before  the  accented 
syllable  in  the  second  thesis  :  ^  x  |  L  x  x  i  ||  . 

hrusan  heolstor  biwrah.    W.  23. 
Also  W.  110. 

SUMMARY. 
Total  Wanderer,  2. 

The  second  of  the  above  examples  might  be  classed  under 
another  type. 

§  5.    TYPE  E.     Fundamental  types :    j  ™,  *  ^  *  j  ^  jj 

This  is  the  rarest  of  the  five  types,  numbering  in  all  only  187 
half-lines.  It  occurs  most  often  in  the  second  half-line ;  and  of 
the  individual  poems,  it  is  most  abundant  in  Exodus,  which  con- 
tains nearly  three-fourths  of  all  the  examples  collated  here. 

I.    Normal  type  E' :  ^  i  x  |  ^  ||  . 
freomaegum  feorr.    W.  21.         Iscealdne  sae.    Sea.  14. 

wicinga  ar.    Br.  26.  langsumne  raed.    Ex.  6. 

Also  W.  54,  91.  Sea.  19,  26.  W.  4,  12,  17,  44,  98.  Sea. 
Ex.  32,  53,  90,  97,  111,  etc.;  73.  Ex.  15,  34,  50,  58,  etc.; 
sum  18.  Br.  92,  114,  146,  sum  41.  Br.  134,  143,  154, 
155,267.  164. 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  <&  ±  x  |  L  ||  . 

m^rewerges  mod.    Sea.  12.  woruld  dreama  lyt.    Ex.  42. 

Also  Sea.  93.    Ex.  277,  349,       Sea.    17,    28.    Br.   166.    Ex. 
364,  482,  488,  540.  115,    306,    316,    329,    etc. ; 

sum  10. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  accented  part  of  the  thesis  :  ^  £5  x  |  L  ||  . 

/  j_ 

Easts£axena  ord.    Br.  69.  blodegesan  hweop.    Ex.  477. 

Also  Ex.  134.  Also  Ex.  198,  587,  265. 


80  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

3.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  ^  ±  *  \  <&  \\. 

hordw£arda  hryre.    Ex.  35.  werigne  sefan.    W.  57. 

Also  Ex.  101,  232,  300,  390,  cearsflda  fela.    Sea.  5. 
489,  511.     Br.  49,  73,  97,        Ex.  21,  24,  38,  63,  66,  etc.; 
298.  sum  8.   Br.  108. 

4.  Resolution  of  both  arsis  :  &  -  x  |  ^  ||  . 

wlnemaega  hryre.    W.  7. 
Also  Br.  249. 

5.  First  arsis  is  short :  u  i  x  |  L  ||  . 

tinearge  menu.    Br.  206.  God  ana  wat.    Br.  94. 

Also  Br!  256. 

(a)    one-syllable  anacrusis  :  x  :  d  ±  x  |  L  ||  . 
on  fdegerne  sweg.    Ex.  566. 

6.  Accented  part  of  the  thesis  is  short :  L  u  x  |  L  ||  . 

aettr&ne  ord.    Br.  47.    Also          fa6st6na  worm.    Ex.  56.    Also 
Ex.  290.  Ex.  491. 

7.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis ;  accented  part  of  the  thesis  is 
short :  &  C  x  \  L  ||  . 

Ae^elr&des  eard.   Br.  53.    Also   Sigelwara  land.    Ex.517. 
Br.  203. 

8.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis ;  accented  part  of  the  thesis 
is  short:  L  0  x  |  ^  ||  . 

Rub&ies  sunu.    Ex.  332.  halige  spraece.    Ex.  517. 

9.  Resolution  of  both  arses ;    accented  part  of  the  thesis  is 

short :  &  &  x  |  &  ||  . 

Ae"3elr£des  ftegen.    Br.  151. 

10.  Second  arsis  is  short :  L  ±  x  |  u  ||  . 

Israela  cyn.     Ex.  358.     Also      gylpwordum  spra^c.    Br.  274. 
Ex.   371,    430,    494,   517,         Ex.  14,  67,  88,  258,  279,  417, 
524.    Br.  279.  487. 


On  Anglo-Saxon   Versification.  81 

11.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis;  the  second  arsis  is  short: 

&    IX    I    6||. 

gryrelwSa  sum.    Br.  285.  maegenwlsa  trtim.    Ex.  553. 

12.  Resolution  of  accented  part  of  the  thesis;  the  second  arsis 
is  short  with  one  syllable  preceding  the  thesis :  L  x  $$  x  |  d  ||  . 

healifaedera  sum.    Ex.  357. 

SUMMARY. 


Wanderer, 

3. 

Wanderer, 

7. 

Seafarer, 

4. 

Seafarer, 

5. 

Exodus, 

42. 

Exodus, 

75. 

B.  of  M., 

18. 

B.  of  M., 

10. 

Total  in  a:      67.  Total  in  b :      97. 

Total  in  both  half-lines,     164. 

Six  of  these  examples  could  possibly  be  entered  under  other 
types,  with  a  change  in  the  sentence-accent. 

II.    One  syllable  in  the  second  thesis :  L  ±  x  |  x  L  ||  . 

\  I  i 

s&ilty^a  gelac.    Sea.  35.  waelradste  geceas.    Br.  113. 

wSrSeida  gewedld.    Ex.  383.  Als°  Ex'   4>  6°>  109'  128> 

Also  Ex  330.  338'  344'  446" 

1.  Resolution  of  the  first  arsis  :  6$  ^  x  |  x  L  ||  . 
lifigdndra  gehwam.    Ex.  6.  h^ofonbeacen  astah.    Ex.  107. 

2.  Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  £  ±  x  \  *  $$  \\  . 

V. 

aSflastum  gewtina.    Ex.  473. 

The  accented  part  of  the  thesis  is  short :  ^  c>  x  |  x  L  ||  . 
Aefdna  gehwam.    Ex.  108. 

4.    The  first  arsis  is  resolved ;  the  second  arsis  is  short,  and  the 
accented  part  of  the  thesis  is  resolved  :  £j  ^  x  |  x  d  ||  . 

faeder  a&3elo  gehwaes.    Ex.  361. 


82 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 
SUMMARY. 


Seafarer, 
Exodus, 


Exodus, 
B.  of  M., 


9. 
1. 

10. 


Total  in  a :      6.  Total  in  b 

Total  in  both  half-lines,     16. 

Three  of  these  examples  might  possibly  be  classed  elsewhere. 

I.    Normal  type  of  E"  :  L  x  i  |  L  ||  . 
No  examples  in  these  poems. 

1.  The  first  arsis  is  short,  the  second  resolved :  ^  x  i  |  ^  ||  . 

/ 
winelaes  gtima.    W.  45.    Also  Br.  45. 

2.  The  second  arsis  is  short,  the  accented  part  of  the  thesis  is 
resolved :  L  x  £3  |  d  ||  . 

lyftedoras  braec.  Ex.  251.   Also  Ex.  273. 

SUMMARY. 
Wanderer,  1.        Exodus,  2.        B.  of  M.,  1.  Total,  4. 

One  of  these  examples  might  be  included  elsewhere,  with  a 
change  in  the  sentence-accent. 

II.    A  syllable  after  the  accented  part  of  the  thesis  :  ^  x  i  x  |  L  ||  . 
/        _\^  / 

modewaega  maest.    Ex.  499. 

(a)    two-syllable  anacrusis  :xx:^xix|^||. 

/     \ 
aer  him  Wigellnes  be"arn.    Br.  300. 

1.    Resolution  of  the  second  arsis  :  ^  x  i  x  |  6$  \\  . 

_L          ^ 

Abrahames  sunum.    Ex.  18. 

SUMMARY. 

Exodus,  1.  B.  of  M.,  1.  Exodus,  1. 

Total,  3. 

GENERAL  SUMMARY  OF  TYPES. 


W. 

Sea. 

Ex. 

Br. 

W. 

Sea. 

Ex. 

Br. 

Total. 

A 

50 

50 

296 

190 

60 

40 

297 

170 

1153 

B 

23 

11 

43 

62 

15 

21 

77 

73 

325 

C 

23 

19 

67 

29 

21 

25 

51 

51 

286 

D 

12 

15 

107 

23 

7 

9 

52 

17 

242 

E 

3 

5 

49 

19 

8 

5 

85 

12 

186 

Total. 

111 

100 

562 

323 

111 

100 

562 

323 

2192 

On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  83 

§  6.  SUGGESTED  CHANGES  IN  THE  TEXT  TO  PREVENT  THE 
OCCURRENCE  OF  ISOLATED,  OR  EXTREMELY  RARE  VARIA- 
TIONS OF  A  NORMAL  TYPE. 

feoh.  Br.  39-a,  should  probably  have  the  diphthong  long,  thus 
giving  the  metrical  scheme  L  x  |  L  x  ||  ,  instead  of  C  x  |  L  x  ||  , 
which  is  found  nowhere  else  in  these  poems. 

haeleft.  Ex.  78-a,  should  be  changed,  for  the  same  reason,  to  the 
more  common  form,  haelefias. 

gefraege.  Ex.  368-b,  and  gefraegost,  Ex.  394-b,  if  written  with 
the  diphthong  long,  gefraege  and  gefraegost,  would  avoid  a 
variation  of  the  normal  type  which  is  found  nowhere  else. 

feor.  Ex.  1-a,  should  be  changed  to  feorr — the  regular  form — 
for  a  similar  reason. 

flot.    Br.  4 1-a,  should  be  flote,  the  regular  form  of  the  dative. 

habaft.  Ex.  1-b,  gives  a  much  more  common  type  if  changed  to 
to  the  regular  form,  habbaft. 

men.  Ex.  373-a,  should  be  written  menn,  to  avoid  an  unusual 
variation  of  the  normal  type. 

sivipode.  Ex.  463-b,  for  a  similar  reason,  should  probably  be 
swippode. 

bodigean.  Ex.  510-a,  should  be  changed  to  either  bodian,  or 
bodigany  the  regular  forms,  to  avoid  an  unusual  variation. 

cyn.    Ex.  265-b,  should  likewise  be  changed  to  the  full  form,  cynn. 

God.  Ex.  432-b,  and  94-b,  and  Br.  262-b,  would  avoid  a  varia- 
tion of  the  normal  type  that  perhaps  occurs  only  in  these 
places,  if  changed  to  God.  The  word  occurs  a  number  of 
times  in  these  four  poems,  and  in  almost  every  case,  to 
make  the  syllable  long  would  class  it  under  a  much  more 
common  type.  This  seems  to  suggest  that  rhythmically 
the  Anglo-Saxon  poet  made  no  distinction  between  God 
and  god. 


84  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 


CHAPTER   II. 

ALLITERATION  IN  THE  WANDERER,  SEAFARER,  EXODUS, 
AND  BATTLE  OF  MALDON. 

In  these  four  poems  there  are,  including  transverse  alliteration, 
eleven  types  of  alliteration  in  all.  Numbering  the  feet  a,  b,  c,  d, 
in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  in  the  line,  these  types  may  be 
represented  as  follows : 

a-b-c,     a-c,     b-c,     a-c-d,     a-b-c-d,     b-c-d,      j  j£^  j  |  j£c  j ,    a-d,     a-d-d,    b-d. 

Only  three  of  these  types  of  alliteration  are  very  common : 
a-b-c,  a-c,  and  b-c.  The  first  occurs  more  frequently  than  all  the 
other  types  put  together ;  there  are  570  examples  of  it  in  these 
four  poems.  The  type  a-c  occurs  next  in  frequency  in  the  earlier 
poems,  but  b-c  in  the  Battle  of  Maldon.  The  per  cent,  of  the 
Wanderer,  Seafarer,  and  Exodus  under  a-c,  is  about  28  ;  of  the 
Battle  of  Maldon,  about  30.  The  per  cent,  of  the  first  three 
poems  under  b-c,  is  about  15 ;  of  the  Battle  of  Maldon,  about  30. 
From  these  figures,  it  seems  that  the  latter  type  of  alliteration 
grew  in  favor  in  the  later  period. 

TABULAR  SUMMARY. 

Type.          Wanderer.      Seafarer.      Exodus.    Battle  of  Maldon.        Total. 

a-b-c.  70  58  295  147  570 

69  294 

97  218 

4  7 

2  8 

5 

1  2 


1  1 

2  3 
1  1 


a-c. 

25               29 

171 

b-c. 

14               12 

95 

a-c-d. 

1 

2 

a-b-c-d. 

2                 1 

3 

b-c-d. 

5 

fare.  \ 
\b-d.i 

1 

1  a-d.  \ 
\b-c.} 

2 

a-d. 

a-d-d. 

1 

b-d. 

On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification.  85 


CHAPTER   III. 
ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LONG  LINES  IN  THE  WANDERER,  SEA- 

FARER, EXODUS    AND    BATTLE   OF    MALDON. 

§  1.  NUMBER  OF  LONG  LINES.  There  are  in  these  four 
poems  altogether  but  fourteen  certain  long  lines.  Of  these,  five  are 
in  the  Wanderer  (111-115);  five  are  in  the  Seafarer  (23,  103,  and 
106-108)  ;  and  four  are  in  Exodus  (411  and  570-572).  No  long 
lines  are  found  in  the  Battle  of  Maldon. 

These  fourteen  Hues  arrange  themselves  under  the  following 
types  :  — 

§  2.    TYPE  A-A.     Normal  form  :  L  x  |  <L  x  |  L  x  ||  . 

/  / 

swa  cwaeS  snottor  on  mode.    W.  111-a 

L  x     |       L     X      x    |     L  X  ||  . 

Wei  biS  Sam  Se  him  are  seceS.    W.  114-b 

u        X         X        X        X   I  £  X  f  £  X  {{  . 

Til  biS  se  Se  his  treowe  gehealdeS.    W.  112-a 

C      x      xxx|^lx      x      ^  x    ||  . 

beorn  of  his  breostum  acySan.    W.  113-a 

L        x       x|      L       x      x|^x||. 

eorl  mid  elne  gefremman.    W.  114-a 

L         x    |    L  x    X    |   L      X     ||  . 

frofre  to  Faeder  in  heofonum.    W.  115-a 


__  _ 

Saer  us  call  seo  fa^stnung  st^ndeS.    W.  115-b 

^   x      ||  . 

stormas  Saer  stanclifu  beotan.    Sea.  23  -a 
-x        x|-xx|-x||. 

/ 

Saer  him  stearn  oncwaeS.    Sea.  23-b 

L          x    |         L\        L       X     ||  . 

dol  biS  se  Se  him  his  Dryhten  ne  ondraedeS.    Sea.  106  -a 
^xxxxx|        ^     x      x     x  I    i  x  ||  . 

cymeS  him  se  deaS  unSinged.    Sea.  106-b 
x      x      L      x     L    x     . 


86  On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 

Micel  biS  se  Meotudes  egsa.    Sea.  103  -a 

&          X       X    |      ^         X    I    ^     X    ||   . 

Eadig  biS  se  Se  eaSmod  leofaS.    Sea.  107-a 
^  x      x      x   x  I  ^      x  I     ^    x  ||  . 

cymeS  him  seb  ar  of  heofonum.     Sea.  107-b 
&          x       x  I  L    x  I     &      x  ||  . 

Me*otod  him  Saet  mod  gest&SeleS.    Sea.  108-a 

&  x         x   |       L       x   |   6$    x  ||  . 

feorh  of  feonda  dome.     Ex.  570-a 

^         X    I     L       X    |    L     X   ||  . 

•Seah  t5e  hie  hit  fr4cne  gen6Sdon.     Ex.  570-b 


L      x      x 


weras  under  waetera  hrofas.     Ex.  571 -a 

u^       x      x  |     ux    x   |      .£    x  ||  . 

ealle  him  brimu  blodige  Siihton.     Ex.  572-a1 

L    X         X         X        X    |      ^   X   X     |    i       X    ||    . 

Surh  Sa  heora  beadosearo  waegon.     Ex.  572-b 

L        x      xx|      ux    x    x   I      ^     x  ||  . 

§  3.    TYPE  B-A.     (According  to  Sievers).     Normal   form: 

X  L  X    I   L  X    |   L  X  ||  . 

gesaet  him  sundor  aet  rune.     W.  111-b 

x     •.       x  I     <.    x        x  I  L    x  ||  . 

ne  sceal  naefre  his  torn  to  rycene.    W.  112-b 

x      x  ^x      x|.i      x|u^x||. 

nemSe  he  aer  Sa  bote  cunne.     W.  113. 
x      x     ^x     x|^x|^x||. 

for  Son  hi  seo  molde  oncyrreS.    Sea.  103-b 
x      x      -x|     _xx|_x||. 

for  Son  he  in  his  medhte  gelyfeS.    Sea.  108-b 

x      x       ^xx|        ^Ixx 

gesawon  hie  Saer  wealles  standan.    Ex.  571-b 

X    —      X  X          XI         «       X    I        *        X 

1  Or  :  ealle  him  brimu  blodige  iStihton,  with  a  change  of  sentence-accent,  making 
it  C-A. 


On  Anglo-Saxon  Versification. 


87 


This  type  occurs  only  in  the  second  half-line.  As  noted  in  the 
discussion  in  Book  II,  Part  I,  these  examples  can  be  classed  under 
A-  A,  with  anacrusis  ;  as, 


gesaet  him  sundor  aet  rune. 
x:^      x|     L     x      x  |  .£  x  || 

nemSe  he  aer  t$a  bote  cunne, 
x    x  :  .£    x    x|   £x  |  £  x  ||  , 

etc. 
§  4.     TYPE  A-B.     Normal  form  :  L  \  x  -  |  x  L  \\  . 

Up  araemde  se  eorl.    Ex.  411  -a 

*.    |     X     <.    I    X     X       L  ||  . 

§  5.     TYPE  C-A.     Normal  form  :  x  ^  |  L  x  |  L  x  ||  . 
a.  b. 

wolde  slean  eaferan  smne.    Ex.  411-b 

XX        L  x  x          L    x       . 


SUMMARY. 


Type 

Wanderer, 
Seafarer, 
Exodus, 

Total, 


a. 

A-A. 
5 
5 
3 

13 


A-B. 


b. 

A-A. 

B-A. 

C-A. 

2 

3 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

7 

6 

1 

We  find  from  the  above  summary  that  the  most  common  type 
of  the  long  line  is  A-A.  The  second  most  common  type  is  B-A, 
which  rhythmically  is  the  same  as  A-A  with  an  anacrusis. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


SEP    2  1968  1  8 


REC'D  LD     OCTfr    *G(M  PM 


Due  end  of  SUMMER 

— , . .  .,..•    . — - '  -    •" 


&    S'?9 


LD  21-95m-7,'37 


YC  1803! 


